Adivasi is an umbrella term for a heterogeneous set of ethnic and tribal groups believed

to be the aboriginal population of India.[1][2][3] They comprise a substantial indigenous

minority of the population of India.

Adivasi societies are particularly present in the Indian states of Kerala, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Mizoram and other northeastern states, and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Many smaller tribal groups are quite sensitive to ecological degradation
caused by modernization. Both commercial forestry and intensive agriculture have
proved destructive to the forests that had endured swidden agriculture for many
centuries[4]. Officially recognized by the Indian government as "Scheduled Tribes" in the
Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, they are often grouped together with
scheduled castes in the category "Scheduled Castes and Tribes", which is eligible for
certain affirmative action measures.

Elst, Koenraad: are also used for the tribes of India, adivasi carries the specific meaning
of being the original and autochthonous inhabitants of a given region, and was
specifically coined for that purpose in the 1930s.[5] Over a period of time, unlike the terms
"aborigines" or "tribes", the word "adivasi" has also developed a connotation of past
autonomy which was disrupted during the British colonial period in India and has not
been restored.[6] Opposition to usage of the term is varied, and it has been argued that the
"original inhabitant" contention is based on dubious claims and that the adivasi - non
adivasi divide that is created is artificial.[7] It should also be noted that in Northeast India,
the term Adivasi applies only to the Tea-tribes imported from Central India during
colonial times, while all tribal groups refer collectively to themselves by using the
English word "tribes".

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Scheduled tribes
• 2 Primitive tribes
• 3 Geographical overview
• 4 The peopling of India
• 5 Disruptions during Mughal and colonial periods
• 6 Tribal classification criteria and demands
o 6.1 Demands for tribal classification
o 6.2 Endogamy, exogamy and ethnogenesis
o 6.3 Other criteria
• 7 Religion
o 7.1 Hinduism
 7.1.1 Adivasi roots of modern Hinduism
 7.1.2 Adivasi Saints
 7.1.3 Sages
 7.1.4 Maharishis
  7.1.5 Avatars
 7.1.6 Other Tribals and Hinduism
o 7.2 Sarna
o 7.3 Demands for a separate religion code
• 8 Tribal system
• 9 Education
• 10 Economy
• 11 Participation in Indian independence movement
o 11.1 List of rebellions against British rule
• 12 Some notable Scheduled Tribes
• 13 Gallery
• 14 See also
• 15 References
• 16 Further reading

• 17 External links

[edit] Scheduled tribes

The Constitution of India, Article 366 (25) defines Scheduled Tribes as "such tribes or
tribal communities or part of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are
deemed under Article 342 to the scheduled Tribes (STs) for the purposes of this
Constitution". In Article 342, the procedure to be followed for specification of a
scheduled tribe is prescribed. However, it does not contain the criterion for the
specification of any community as scheduled tribe. An often used criterion is based on
attributes such as:

• Geographical isolation - they live in cloistered, exclusive, remote and inhospitable

areas such as hills and forests.
• Backwardness - their livelihood is based on primitive agriculture, a low-value
closed economy with a low level of technology that leads to their poverty. They
have low levels of literacy and health.
• Distinctive culture, language and religion - communities have developed their
own distinctive culture, language and religion.
• Shyness of contact – they have a marginal degree of contact with other cultures
and people.[8]

[edit] Primitive tribes

The Scheduled Tribe groups who were identified as more backward communities among
the tribal population groups have been categorised as 'Primitive Tribal Groups' (PTGs) by
the Government at the Centre in 1975. So far seventy-five tribal communities have been
identified as 'primitive tribal groups' in different States of India. These hunting, food-
gathering, and some agricultural communities, who have been identified as more
backward communities among the tribal population groups need special programmes for
their sustainable development. The primitive tribes are awakening and demanding their
rights for special reservation quota for them.[9]

[edit] Geographical overview

A girl of the Chenchu tribe playing with plastic waste

in midst of Nallamala forest, Andhra Pradesh

There is a substantial list of Scheduled Tribes in

India recognised as tribal under the Constitution of
India. Tribal peoples constitute 8.2% of the nation's
total population, over 84 million people according to
the 2001 census. One concentration lives in a belt
along the Himalayas stretching through Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand in the
west, to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal
Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland in the
northeast. In the northeastern states of Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland, more
than 90% of the population is tribal. However, in the remaining northeast states of
Assam, Manipur, Sikkim, and Tripura, tribal peoples form between 20 and 30% of the
population.

Another concentration lives in the hilly areas of central India (Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa and, to a lesser extent, Andhra Pradesh); in this belt, which is bounded by
the Narmada River to the north and the Godavari River to the southeast, tribal peoples
occupy the slopes of the region's mountains. Other tribals, including the Santals, live in
Jharkhand and West Bengal. Central Indian states have the country's largest tribes, and,
taken as a whole, roughly 75% of the total tribal population live there, although the tribal
population there accounts for only around 10% of the region's total population.

There are smaller numbers of tribal people in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in
south India; in western India in Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in the union territories of
Lakshadweep and the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands. About one percent of the
populations of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are tribal, whereas about six percent in Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka are members of tribes.

[edit] The peopling of India

The concept of 'original inhabitant' is directly related to the initial peopling of India,
which, due to the debate on topics such as the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis, has been
a contentious area of research and discourse.[10] Some anthropologists hypothesize that
the region was settled by multiple human migrations over tens of millennia, which makes
it even harder to select certain groups as being truly aboriginal.[11] One narrative, largely
based on genetic research, describes Negritos, similar to the Andamanese adivasis of
today, as the first humans to colonize India, likely 30-65 thousand years before present
(kybp).[12][13] 60% of all Indians share the mtDNA haplogroup M, which is universal
among Andamanese islander adivasis and might be a genetic legacy of the postulated first
Indians.[14] Some anthropologists theorize that these settlers were displaced by invading
Austro-Asiatic-speaking Australoid people (who largely shared skin pigmentation and
physiognomy with the Negritos, but had straight rather than kinky hair), and adivasi
tribes such as the Irulas trace their origins to that displacement.[15][16] The Oraon adivasi
tribe of eastern India and the Korku tribe of western India are considered to be examples
of groups of Australoid origin.[17][18] Subsequent to the Australoids, some anthropologists
and geneticists theorize that Caucasoids (including both Dravidians and Indo-Aryans) and
Mongoloids (Sino-Tibetans) immigrated into India: the Dravidians possibly from Iran,[19]
[20][21]
the Indo-Aryans possibly from the Central Asian steppes[20][22][23] and the Tibeto-
Burmans possibly from the Himalayan and north-eastern borders of the subcontinent.[24]
None of these hypotheses is free from debate and disagreement.

Ethnic origins and linguistic affiliations in India match only inexactly, however: while
the Oraon adivasis are classified as an Australoid group, their language, called Kurukh, is
Dravidian.[25] Khasis and Nicobarese are considered to be Mongoloid groups[26][27] and the
Munda and Santals are Australoid groups,[28][29][30] but all four speak Austro-Asiatic
languages.[26][27][28] The Bhils and Gonds are frequently classified as Australoid groups,[31]
yet Bhil languages are Indo-European and the Gondi language is Dravidian.[25] Also, in
post-colonial India, tribal languages suffered huge setbacks with the formation of
linguistic states after 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act. For example, under state-
sponsored educational pressure, Irula children are being taught Tamil and a sense of
shame has begun to be associated with speaking the Irula language among some children
and educated adults.[15] Similarly, the Santals are "gradually adopting languages of the
areas inhabited, like Oriya in Orissa, Hindi in Bihar and Bengali in West Bengal."[29]

[edit] Disruptions during Mughal and colonial periods

Although considered uncivilized and primitive,[32] adivasis were usually not held to be
intrinsically impure by surrounding (usually, caucasoid - Dravidian or Aryan) caste
Hindu populations, unlike Dalits, who were.[5][33] Thus, the adivasi origins of Maharshi
(Sanksrit: Great Sage) Valmiki, who composed the Ramayana Hindu religious epic, were
acknowledged,[34] as were the origins of adivasi tribes such as the Grasia and Bhilala,
which descended from mixed Rajput and Bhil marriages.[35][36] Unlike the subjugation of
the dalits, the adivasis often enjoyed autonomy and, depending on region, evolved mixed
hunter-gatherer and farming economies, controlling their lands as a joint patrimony of the
tribe.[32][37][38] In some areas, securing adivasi approval and support was considered crucial
by local rulers,[5][39] and larger adivasi groups were able to sustain their own kingdoms in
central India.[5] The Gond Rajas of Garha-Mandla and Chanda are examples of an adivasi
aristocracy that ruled in this region, and were "not only the hereditary leaders of their
Gond subjects, but also held sway over substantial communities of non-tribals who
recognized them as their feudal lords."[37][40]
This relative autonomy and collective ownership of adivasi land by adivasis was severely
disrupted by the advent of the Mughals in the early 16th century. Similarly, the British
beginning in the 18th century added to the consolidation of feudalism in India, first under
the jagirdari system and then under the zamindari system.[41] Beginning with the
Permanent Settlement imposed by the British in Bengal and Bihar, which later became
the template for a deepening of feudalism throughout India, the older social and
economic system in the country began to alter radically.[42][43] Land, both forest areas
belonging to adivasis and settled farmland belonging to non-adivasi peasants, was rapidly
made the legal property of British-designated zamindars (landlords), who in turn moved
to extract the maximum economic benefit possible from their newfound property and
subjects without regard to historical tenure or ownership.[44] Adivasi lands sometimes
experienced an influx of non-local settlers, often brought from far away (as in the case of
Muslims and Sikhs brought to Kol territory)[45] by the zamindars to better exploit local
land, forest and labor.[41][42] Deprived of the forests and resources they traditionally
depended on and sometimes coerced to pay taxes, many adivasis were forced to borrow
at usurious rates from moneylenders, often the zamindars themselves.[46][47] When they
were unable to pay, that forced them to become bonded laborers for the zamindars.[48]
Often, far from paying off the principal of their debt, they were unable even to offset the
compounding interest, and this was made the justification for their children working for
the zamindar after the death of the initial borrower.[48] In the case of the Andamanese
adivasis, long isolated from the outside world in autonomous societies, mere contact with
outsiders was often sufficient to set off deadly epidemics in tribal populations,[49] and it is
alleged that some sections of the British government directly attempted to destroy some
tribes.[50]

Land dispossession and subjugation by British and zamindar interests resulted in a

number of adivasi revolts in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, such as the
Santal hul (or Santal revolt) of 1855-56.[51] Although these were suppressed ruthlessly by
the governing British authority (the East India Company prior to 1858, and the British
government after 1858), partial restoration of privileges to adivasi elites (e.g. to Mankis,
the leaders of Munda tribes) and some leniency in tax burdens resulted in relative calm,
despite continuing and widespread dispossession, from the late nineteenth century
onwards.[45][52] The economic deprivation, in some cases, triggered internal adivasi
migrations within India that would continue for another century, including as labor for
the emerging tea plantations in Assam.[53]

[edit] Tribal classification criteria and demands

 Scarification, a traditional symbol of Great
Andamanese tribal identity (1901 photo)

Population complexities, and the controversies

surrounding ethnicity and language in India,
sometimes make the official recognition of groups
as adivasis (by way of inclusion in the Scheduled
Tribes list) political and contentious. However,
regardless of their language family affiliations,
Australoid and Negrito groups that have survived
as distinct forest, mountain or island dwelling
tribes in India and are often classified as adivasi.[54]
The relatively autonomous Mongoloid tribal
groups of Northeastern India (including Khasis,
Apatani and Nagas), who are mostly Austro-
Asiatic or Tibeto-Burman speakers, are also
considered to be adivasis: this area comprises
7.5% of India's land area but 20% of its adivasi
population.[55] However, not all autonomous
northeastern groups are considered adivasis; for
instance, the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Meitei of
Manipur were once tribal but, having been settled
for many centuries, are caste Hindus.[56]

It is also difficult, for a given social grouping, to definitively decide whether it is a 'caste'
or a 'tribe'. A combination of internal social organization, relationship with other groups,
self-classification and perception by other groups has to be taken into account to make a
categorization, which is at best inexact and open to doubt.[57] These categorizations have
been diffused for thousands of years, and even ancient formulators of caste-
discriminatory legal codes (which usually only applied to settled populations, and not
adivasis) were unable to come up with clean distinctions.[58]

[edit] Demands for tribal classification

An additional difficulty in deciding whether a group meets the criteria to be adivasi or not
are the aspirational movements created by the federal and state benefits, including job
and educational reservations, enjoyed by groups listed as scheduled tribes (STs).[59] In
Manipur, Meitei commentators have pointed to the lack of scheduled tribe status as a key
economic disadvantage for Meiteis competing for jobs against groups that are classified
as scheduled tribes.[56] In Assam, Rajbongshi representatives have demanded scheduled
tribe status as well.[60] In Rajasthan, Haryana and other northern states, the Gujjar
community has demanded ST status, even blockading the national capital of Delhi to
press their demand.[61] In several cases, these claims to tribalhood are disputed by tribes
who are already listed in the schedule and fear economic losses if more powerful groups
are recognized as scheduled tribes; for instance, the Rajbongshi demand faces resistance
from the Bodo tribe,[60] and the Meena tribe has vigorously opposed Gujjar aspirations to
be recognized as a scheduled tribe.[62]

[edit] Endogamy, exogamy and ethnogenesis

Part of the challenge is that the endogamous nature of tribes is also conformed to by the
vast majority of Hindu castes. Indeed, many historians and anthropologists believe that
caste endogamy reflects the once-tribal origins of the various groups who now constitute
the settled Hindu castes.[63] Another defining feature of caste Hindu society, which is
often used to contrast them with Muslim and other social groupings, is lineage/clan (or
gotra) and village exogamy.[64][65] However, these in-marriage taboos are also held
ubiquitously among tribal groups, and do not serve as reliable differentiating markers
between caste and tribe.[66][67][68] Again, this could be an ancient import from tribal society
into settled Hindu castes.[69] Interestingly, tribes such as the Muslim Gujjars of Kashmir
and the Kalash of Pakistan observe these exogamous traditions in common with caste
Hindus and non-Kashmiri adivasis, though their surrounding Muslim populations do not.
[64][70]

Some anthropologists, however, draw a distinction between tribes who have continued to
be tribal and tribes that have been absorbed into caste society in terms of the breakdown
of tribal (and therefore caste) boundaries, and the proliferation of new mixed caste
groups. In other words, ethnogenesis (the construction of new ethnic identities) in tribes
occurs through a fission process (where groups splinter-off as new tribes, which
preserves endogamy), whereas with settled castes it usually occurs through intermixture
(in violation of strict endogamy).[71]

[edit] Other criteria

Unlike castes, which form part of a complex and interrelated local economic exchange
system, tribes tend to form self-sufficient economic units. For most tribal people, land-
use rights traditionally derive simply from tribal membership. Tribal society tends to the
egalitarian, with its leadership based on ties of kinship and personality rather than on
hereditary status. Tribes typically consist of segmentary lineages whose extended
families provide the basis for social organization and control. Tribal religion recognizes
no authority outside the tribe.

Any of these criteria may not apply in specific instances. Language does not always give
an accurate indicator of tribal or caste status. Especially in regions of mixed population,
many tribal groups have lost their mother tongues and simply speak local or regional
languages. In parts of Assam - an area historically divided between warring tribes and
villages - increased contact among villagers began during the colonial period, and has
accelerated since independence in 1947. A pidgin Assamese developed while educated
tribal members learned Hindi and, in the late twentieth century, English.
Self-identification and group loyalty do not provide unfailing markers of tribal identity
either. In the case of stratified tribes, the loyalties of clan, kin, and family may well
predominate over those of tribe. In addition, tribes cannot always be viewed as people
living apart; the degree of isolation of various tribes has varied tremendously. The Gonds,
Santals, and Bhils traditionally have dominated the regions in which they have lived.
Moreover, tribal society is not always more egalitarian than the rest of the rural populace;
some of the larger tribes, such as the Gonds, are highly stratified.

The apparently wide fluctuation in estimates of South Asia's tribal population through the
twentieth century gives a sense of how unclear the distinction between tribal and
nontribal can be. India's 1931 census enumerated 22 million tribal people, in 1941 only
10 million were counted, but by 1961 some 30 million and in 1991 nearly 68 million
tribal members were included. The differences among the figures reflect changing census
criteria and the economic incentives individuals have to maintain or reject classification
as a tribal member.

These gyrations of census data serve to underline the complex relationship between caste
and tribe. Although, in theory, these terms represent different ways of life and ideal types,
in reality they stand for a continuum of social groups. In areas of substantial contact
between tribes and castes, social and cultural pressures have often tended to move tribes
in the direction of becoming castes over a period of years. Tribal peoples with ambitions
for social advancement in Indian society at large have tried to gain the classification of
caste for their tribes. On occasion, an entire tribe or part of a tribe joined a Hindu sect and
thus entered the caste system en masse. If a specific tribe engaged in practices that
Hindus deemed polluting, the tribe's status when it was assimilated into the caste
hierarchy would be affected.

[edit] Religion
Main article: Tribal religions in India

The majority of Adivasi practice Hinduism and Christianity. During the last two decades
Adivasi from Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand have converted to Protestant groups.
Adivasi beliefs vary by tribe, and are usually different from the historical Vedic religion,
with its monistic underpinnings, Indo-European deities (who are often cognates of
ancient Iranian, Greek and Roman deities, e.g. Mitra/Mithra/Mithras), lack of idol
worship and lack of a concept of reincarnation.[72] The "centre of Rig Vedic religion was
the Yajna, the sacrificial fire" and there was "no Atma, no Brahma, no Moksha, no idol
worship in the Rig Veda."[73] Two specific rituals held great importance and it is known
that, "when the Indo-Aryans and the Persians formed a single people, they performed
sacrifices (Vedic yajna: Avestan yasna), and that they already had a sacred drink (Vedic
soma: Avestan haoma)."[74]

[edit] Hinduism

[edit] Adivasi roots of modern Hinduism

Some historians and anthropologists assert that much of what constitutes popular
Hinduism today is actually descended from an amalgamation of adivasi faiths, idol
worship practices and deities, rather than the original Indo-Aryan faith.[73][75][76] This also
includes the sacred status of certain animals and plants, such as monkeys, cows,
peacocks, cobras (nagas), elephants, peepul, tulsi (holy basil) and neem, which may once
have held totemic importance for certain adivasi tribes.[75]

[edit] Adivasi Saints

• Saint Buddhu Bhagat, led the Kol Insurrection (1831-1832) aimed against tax
imposed on Mundas by Muslim rulers.
• Saint Dhira or Kannappa Nayanar[7], one of 63 Nayanar Shaivite saints, a hunter
from whom Lord Shiva gladly accepted food offerings. It is said that he poured
water from his mouth on the Shivlingam and offered the Lord swine flesh.[8]
• Saint Dhudhalinath, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee (P. 4, The
Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
• Saint Ganga Narain, led the Bhumij Revolt (1832-1833) aimed against
missionaries and British colonialists.
• Saint Girnari Velnathji, Koli, Gujarati of Junagadh, a 17th or 18th century
devotee [77]
• Saint Gurudev Kalicharan Brahma or Guru Brahma, a Bodo whose founded the
Brahma Dharma aimed against missionaries and colonialists. The Brahma
Dharma movement sought to unite peoples of all religions to worship God
together and survives even today.
• Saint Jatra Oraon, Oraon, led the Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-1919) aimed
against the missionaries and British colonialists
• Saint Sri Koya Bhagat, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee [77]
• Saint Tantya Mama (Bhil), a Bhil after whom a movement is named after - the
"Jananayak Tantya Bhil"
• Saint Tirumangai Alvar, Kallar, composed the six Vedangas in beautiful Tamil
verse[9]

[edit] Sages

• Bhaktaraj Bhadurdas, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee [77]

• Bhakta Shabari, a Bhil woman that offered Shri Rama and Shri Laxmana her half-
eaten ber fruit, which they gratefully accepted when they were searching for Shri
Sita Devi in the forest.
• Madan Bhagat, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee [77]
• Sany Kanji Swami, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee [77]
• Bhaktaraj Valram, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee [77]

[edit] Maharishis

• Maharshi Matanga[78], Matanga Bhil, Guru of Bhakta Shabari. In fact, Chandalas

are often addressed as ‘Matanga ’in passages like Varaha Purana 1.139.91
 • Maharshi Valmiki, Kirata Bhil, composed the Ramayana.[34] He is considered to
be an avatar in the Balmiki community.

Refer SaptaRishis, the seven primordial sages, the contributors of Indian heritage have
historic as well as esoteric records throughout the hoary literature of India. [79]

[edit] Avatars

• Birsa Bhagwan or Birsa Munda, considered an avatar of Khasra Kora. People

approached him as Singbonga, the supreme spirit. He converted even Christians
to his own sect.[10] He was against conversions by missionaries. He wanted not
only political, but religious freedom as well![11] He and his clan, the Mundas,
were connected with Vaishnavite traditions as they were influenced by Sri
Chaitanya.[12] Birsa was very close to the Panre brothers Vaishnavites.
• Kirata - the form of Lord Shiva as a hunter. It is mentioned in the Mahabharata.
The Karppillikkavu Sree Mahadeva Temple, Kerala adores Lord Shiva in this
avatar and is known to be one of the oldest surviving temples in Bharat.
• Vettakkorumakan, the son of Lord Kirata.
• Kaladutaka or 'Vaikunthanatha', Kallar (robber), avatar of Lord Vishnu.[13]

[edit] Other Tribals and Hinduism

Some Hindus believe that Indian tribals are close to the romantic ideal of the ancient
silvan culture[80] of the Vedic people. Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar said:

"The tribals "can be given yajñopavîta (…) They should be given equal rights and
footings in the matter of religious rights, in temple worship, in the study of Vedas, and in
general, in all our social and religious affairs. This is the only right solution for all the
problems of casteism found nowadays in our Hindu society.”[81]

At the Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneswar (11th century), there are Brahmin and Badu
(tribal) priests. The Badus have the most intimate contact with the deity of the temple,
and only they can bathe and adorn it.[82]

The Bhil tribe is mentioned in the Mahabharata. The Bhil boy Eklavya's teacher was
Drona, and he had the honour to be invited to Yudhisthira's Rajasuya Yajna at
Indraprastha.[83] Indian tribals were also part of royal armies in the Ramayana and in the
Arthasastra.[84]

Bhakta Shabari was a Bhil woman that offered Shri Rama and Shri Laxmana 'ber' when
they were searching for Shri Sita in the forest. Maharishi Matanga, a Bhil became a
Brahmana.

[edit] Sarna
Some western authors and Indian sociologists refer to adivasi beliefs as animism and
spirit worship, and hold them to be distinct from Hinduism, Christianity or Islam. In
Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Orissa states, their religion is sometimes called Sarna. The
Jharkhand movement gave the Santals an opportunity to create a ‘great tradition’ of their
own. [85] As Orans reported, “The movement is spoken of in the following terms ‘we
should not leave our religion; we should continue to use rice-beer; we should have our
worship at the sacred grove; also we should not stop eating beef. We will call our religion
Sarna Dhorom.’ [86] Sarna is the Munda word for ‘Sacred Grove’ while Dhorom is the
Oriya word meaning ‘religion’. [87]

Sarna involves belief in a great spirit called the Sing Bonga. Santhal belief holds the
world to be inhabited by numerous spiritual beings of different kinds. Santhals consider
themselves as living and doing everything in close association with these spirits. Rituals
are performed under groves of Sal trees called Jaher (or sacred grove), where Bonga is
believed to appear or express himself. Often, Jaher are found in the forests.

According to the mythology of the Santhal community, the genesis of the ‘Sarna’ religion
occurred when the ‘Santhal tribals had gone to the forest for hunting and they started the
discussion about their ‘Creator and Savior’ while they were taking rest under a tree. They
questioned themselves that who is their God? Whether the Sun, the Wind or the Cloud?
Finally, they came to a conclusion that they would leave an arrow in the sky and
wherever the arrow would target that will be the God’s house. They left an arrow in the
sky; it fell down under a Sal tree. Then, they started worshiping the Sal tree and named
their religion as ‘Sarna’ because it is derived from a Sal tree.[citation needed]4 Thus, Sarna
religion came into existence. There are priests and an assistant priests called "Naikey"
and "Kudam Naike" in every Santhal village.

[edit] Demands for a separate religion code

Some adivasi organizations have demanded that a distinct religious code be listed for
adivasis in the 2011 Census of India.[88]

[edit] Tribal system

Tribals are not part of the caste system,[89] and usually constitute egalitarian societies.
Christian tribals do not automatically lose their traditional tribal rules.

When in 1891 a missionary asked 150 Munda Christians to "inter-dine" with people of
different rank, only 20 Christians did so, and many converts lost their new faith. Father
Haghenbeek concluded on this episode that these rules are not "pagan", but a sign of
"national sentiment and pride", and wrote:

“On the contrary, while proclaiming the equality of all men before God, we now tell
them: preserve your race pure, keep your customs, refrain from eating with Lohars
(blacksmiths), Turis (bamboo workers) and other people of lower rank. To become good
Christians, it (inter-dining) is not required.”[90]
However, many scholars argue that the claim that tribals are an egalitarian society in
contrast to a caste-based society is a part of a larger political agenda by some to
maximize any differences from tribal and urban societies. According to scholar Koenraad
Elst, caste practices and social taboos among Indian tribals date back to antiquity:

"The Munda tribals not only practise tribal endogamy and commensality, but also
observe a jâti division within the tribe, buttressed by notions of social pollution, a
mythological explanation and harsh punishments. A Munda Catholic theologian testifies:
The tribals of Chhotanagpur are an endogamous tribe. They usually do not marry outside
the tribal community, because to them the tribe is sacred. The way to salvation is the
tribe. Among the Santals, it is tabooed to marry outside the tribe or inside ones clan, just
as Hindus marry inside their caste and outside their gotra. More precisely: To protect
their tribal solidarity, the Santals have very stringent marriage laws. A Santal cannot
marry a non-Santal or a member of his own clan. The former is considered as a threat to
the tribe's integrity, while the latter is considered incestuous. Among the Ho of
Chhotanagpur, the trespasses which occasion the exclusion from the tribe without chance
of appeal, are essentially those concerning endogamy and exogamy."

Inter-dining has also been prohibited by many Indian tribal peoples.

[edit] Education
Extending the system of primary education into tribal areas and reserving places for tribal
children in middle and high schools and higher education institutions are central to
government policy, but efforts to improve a tribe's educational status have had mixed
results. Recruitment of qualified teachers and determination of the appropriate language
of instruction also remain troublesome. Commission after commission on the "language
question" has called for instruction, at least at the primary level, in the students' native
tongue. In some regions, tribal children entering school must begin by learning the
official regional language, often one completely unrelated to their tribal tongue.

Many tribal schools are plagued by high dropout rates. Children attend for the first three
to four years of primary school and gain a smattering of knowledge, only to lapse into
illiteracy later. Few who enter continue up to the tenth grade; of those who do, few
manage to finish high school. Therefore, very few are eligible to attend institutions of
higher education, where the high rate of attrition continues. Members of agrarian tribes
like the Gonds often are reluctant to send their children to school, needing them, they say,
to work in the fields. On the other hand, in those parts of the northeast where tribes have
generally been spared the wholesale onslaught of outsiders, schooling has helped tribal
people to secure political and economic benefits. The education system there has
provided a corps of highly trained tribal members in the professions and high-ranking
administrative posts.

An academy for teaching and preserving Adivasi languages and culture was established
in 1999 by the Bhasha Research and Publication Centre. The Adivasi Academy is located
at Tejgadh in Gujarat.
[edit] Economy
Most tribes are concentrated in heavily forested areas that combine inaccessibility with
limited political or economic significance. Historically, the economy of most tribes was
subsistence agriculture or hunting and gathering. Tribal members traded with outsiders
for the few necessities they lacked, such as salt and iron. A few local Hindu craftsmen
might provide such items as cooking utensils.

In the early 20th century, however, large areas fell into the hands of non-tribals, on
account of improved transportation and communications. Around 1900, many regions
were opened by the government to settlement through a scheme by which inward
migrants received ownership of land free in return for cultivating it. For tribal people,
however, land was often viewed as a common resource, free to whoever needed it. By the
time tribals accepted the necessity of obtaining formal land titles, they had lost the
opportunity to lay claim to lands that might rightfully have been considered theirs. The
colonial and post-independence regimes belatedly realized the necessity of protecting
tribals from the predations of outsiders and prohibited the sale of tribal lands. Although
an important loophole in the form of land leases was left open, tribes made some gains in
the mid-twentieth century, and some land was returned to tribal peoples despite
obstruction by local police and land officials.

In the 1970s, tribal peoples came again under intense land pressure, especially in central
India. Migration into tribal lands increased dramatically, as tribal people lost title to their
lands in many ways – lease, forfeiture from debts, or bribery of land registry officials.
Other non-tribals simply squatted, or even lobbied governments to classify them as tribal
to allow them to compete with the formerly established tribes. In any case, many tribal
members became landless labourers in the 1960s and 1970s, and regions that a few years
earlier had been the exclusive domain of tribes had an increasingly mixed population of
tribals and non-tribals. Government efforts to evict nontribal members from illegal
occupation have proceeded slowly; when evictions occur at all, those ejected are usually
members of poor, lower castes.

Improved communications, roads with motorized traffic, and more frequent government
intervention figured in the increased contact that tribal peoples had with outsiders.
Commercial highways and cash crops frequently drew non-tribal people into remote
areas. By the 1960s and 1970s, the resident nontribal shopkeeper was a permanent feature
of many tribal villages. Since shopkeepers often sell goods on credit (demanding high
interest), many tribal members have been drawn deeply into debt or mortgaged their land.
Merchants also encourage tribals to grow cash crops (such as cotton or castor-oil plants),
which increases tribal dependence on the market for basic necessities. Indebtedness is so
extensive that although such transactions are illegal, traders sometimes 'sell' their debtors
to other merchants, much like indentured peons.

The final blow for some tribes has come when nontribals, through political jockeying,
have managed to gain legal tribal status, that is, to be listed as a Scheduled Tribe.
Tribes in the Himalayan foothills have not been as hard-pressed by the intrusions of non-
tribal. Historically, their political status was always distinct from the rest of India. Until
the British colonial period, there was little effective control by any of the empires
centered in peninsular India; the region was populated by autonomous feuding tribes. The
British, in efforts to protect the sensitive northeast frontier, followed a policy dubbed the
"Inner Line"; non tribal people were allowed into the areas only with special permission.
Postindependence governments have continued the policy, protecting the Himalayan
tribes as part of the strategy to secure the border with China.

Government policies on forest reserves have affected tribal peoples profoundly.

Government efforts to reserve forests have precipitated armed (if futile) resistance on the
part of the tribal peoples involved. Intensive exploitation of forests has often meant
allowing outsiders to cut large areas of trees (while the original tribal inhabitants were
restricted from cutting), and ultimately replacing mixed forests capable of sustaining
tribal life with single-product plantations. Nontribals have frequently bribed local
officials to secure effective use of reserved forest lands.

The northern tribes have thus been sheltered from the kind of exploitation that those
elsewhere in South Asia have suffered. In Arunachal Pradesh (formerly part of the North-
East Frontier Agency), for example, tribal members control commerce and most lower-
level administrative posts. Government construction projects in the region have provided
tribes with a significant source of cash. Some tribes have made rapid progress through the
education system (the role of early missionaries was significant in this regard).
Instruction was begun in Assamese but was eventually changed to Hindi; by the early
1980s, English was taught at most levels. Northeastern tribal people have thus enjoyed a
certain measure of social mobility.

The continuing economic alienation and exploitation of many adivasis was highlighted as
a "systematic failure" by the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in a 2009
conference of chief ministers of all 29 Indian states, where he also cited this as a major
cause of the Naxalite unrest that has affected areas such as the Red Corridor.[91][92][93][94][95]

[edit] Participation in Indian independence movement

There were tribal reform and rebellion movements during the period of the British
Empire, some of which also participated in the Indian freedom struggle or attacked
mission posts.[96] There were several Adivasis in the Indian independence movement
including Khajya Naik, Bhima Naik, Jantya Bhil and Rehma Vasave.

[edit] List of rebellions against British rule

During the period of British rule, India saw the rebellions of several backward-castes,
mainly tribals that revolted against British rule. These were:[97].

1. Halba rebellion (1774-79)

2. Chamka rebellion (1776-1787)[98]
 3. Chuar rebellion in Bengal (1795-1800)[99]
4. Bhopalpatnam Struggle (1795)
5. Khurda Rebellion in Orissa (1817)[100]
6. Bhil rebellion (1822-1857)[101]
7. Paralkot rebellion (1825)
8. Tarapur rebellion (1842-54)
9. Maria rebellion (1842-63)
10. First Freedom Struggle (1856-57)
11. Bhil rebellion, begun by Tantya Tope in Banswara (1858)[102]
12. Koi revolt (1859)
13. Gond rebellion, begun by Ramji Gond in Adilabad (1860)[103]
14. Muria rebellion (1876)
15. Rani rebellion (1878-82)
16. Bhumkal (1910)
17. The Kuki Uprising (1917-1919)in Manipur

[edit] Some notable Scheduled Tribes

• Thakur Peoples of Maharashta
• Andamanese
• Bodos
• Bhils
• Chakma
• Chenchu
• Dhodia Tribes of Gujarat
• Gonds
• Khasis
• indigenous people of Lakshadweep
• Kurichiya
• Kurumbar
• Tripuris
• Mizos
• Malhar Koli
• Mundaris
• Nagas
• Nicobarese
• Oraon
• Santals
• Saharia
• Todas
• Maldharis of Gujarat.
• Cholanaikkan
• Kokana / Kokani
• Warli
• Katkari / Kathodi
• Kisan Tribe
 • Dongria Kondh
• Bonda
• Kutia Kondh
• Bishapus A'Mishapus

[edit] Gallery
Some portraits of adivasi people.

Bhil Bhil

Young Baiga women

Saharia tribe tribe tribe

Gondi tribe Gondi tribe Gondi tribe Gondi tribe

Gondi tribe Bhil tribe Bhil tribe

Bhil tribe Bhil tribe Saharia tribe

[edit] See also

• Tribal religions in India
• List of Scheduled Tribes in India; according to the constitution
• Scheduled castes
• Caste system
• C. K. Janu
• Chakma
• Jarawa
• Shompen
• Great Andamanese
• Meenas
[edit] References
1. ^ Lok Sabha Debates ser.10 Jun 41-42 1995 v.42 no.41-42, Lok Sabha
Secretariat, Parliament of India, 1995, http://books.google.com/?
id=EaRXAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... Adivasis are the aborigines of
India ..."
2. ^ Minocheher Rustom Masani and Ramaswamy Srinivasan (1985), Freedom and
Dissent: Essays in Honour of Minoo Masani on His Eigthtieth Birthday,
Democratic Research Service, http://books.google.com/?id=v861AAAAIAAJ,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The Adivasis are the original inhabitants of India. That
is what Adivasi means: the original inhabitant. They were the people who were
there before the Dravidians. The tribals are the Gonds, the Bhils, the Murias, the
Nagas and a hundred more. ..."
3. ^ Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1968), The Selected Works of Mahatma
Gandhi : Satyagraha in South Africa, Navajivan Publishing House,
http://books.google.com/?id=cApuAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The
Adivasis are the original inhabitants ..."
4. ^ Acharya, Deepak and Shrivastava Anshu (2008): Indigenous Herbal Medicines:
Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices, Aavishkar Publishers
Distributor, Jaipur- India. ISBN 978-81-7910-252-7. pp 440.
5. ^ a b c d Robert Harrison Barnes, Andrew Gray and Benedict Kingsbury (1995),
Indigenous Peoples of Asia, Association for Asian Studies, ISBN 0924304146,
http://books.google.com/?id=-8eBAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The
Concept of the Adivasi: According to the political activists who coined the word
in the 1930s, the "adivasis" are the original inhabitants of South Asia ..."
6. ^ Louise Waite (2006), Embodied Working Lives: Work and Life in Maharashtra,
India, Lexington Books, ISBN 073910876X, http://books.google.com/?
id=gLm6WmbFsA0C, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The scheduled tribes themselves
tend to refer to their ethnic grouping as adivasis, which means 'original
inhabitant.' Hardiman continues to argue that the term adivasi is preferable in
India as it evokes a shared history of relative freedom in precolonial times ..."
7. ^ Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1980), The Scheduled Tribes of India, Transaction
Publishers, ISBN 0878556923, http://books.google.com/?id=9qt2e8xc-M4C,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... I have stated above, while ascertaining the general
attitude of Mr. Jaipal Singh to tribal problems, his inisistence on the term
'Adivasi' being used for Schedule Tribes ... Sir, myself I claim to an Adivasi and
an original inhabitant of the country as Mr. Jaipal Singh ... a pseudo-ethno-
historical substantiation for the term 'Adivasi' ..."
8. ^ [1] Labour Bureau, Government of India (from here)
9. ^ New Book: Anthropology of Primitive Tribes in India
10. ^ Edwin Bryant and Laurie L. Patton (2005), The Indo-Aryan Controversy,
Routledge, ISBN 0700714626, http://books.google.com/?id=ui3nAXVstroC,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... we now exist in an era where one's use of evidence is
inevitably suspect of being linked to nationalist, colonialist, or cultural
agendas ... No issue is more illustrative of this impasse than the debate about
Aryan origins ..."
11. ^ Ludwig Gumplowicz and Irving Louis Horowitz (1980), Outlines of Sociology,
Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0878556931, http://books.google.com/?
id=JbbKfaEJvm4C, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The Negritos were the earliest
inhabitants of India ... The Proto-Australoids who followed them had their type
more or less fixed in India and therefore may be considered to be the true
aborigines. Thereafter the Austro-Asiatic peoples came ... the Indo Aryans came
and settled in India; so, too, did the Dravidians ... This being the state of our
knowledge regarding the peopling of India, it would be hazardous to look upon
one particular section of the population as the aborigines of India ..."
12. ^ Spencer Wells (2002), The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey, Princeton
University Press, ISBN 069111532X, http://books.google.com/?id=WAsKm-
_zu5sC, "... the population of south-east Asia prior to 6000 years ago was
composed largely of groups of hunter-gatherers very similar to modern
Negritos ... So, both the Y-chromosome and the mtDNA paint a clear picture of a
coastal leap from Africa to south-east Asia, and onward to Australia ... DNA has
given us a glimpse of the voyage, which almost certainly followed a coastal route
va India ..."
13. ^ Jim Mason (2005), An Unnatural Order: The Roots of Our Destruction of
Nature, Lantern Books, ISBN 1590560817, http://books.google.com/?
id=7nTUkoLzSk0C, "... Australia's "aboriginal" peoples are another case in
point. At the end of the Ice Age, their homeland stretched from the middle of India
eastward into southeast Asia and as far south as Indonesia and nearby islands.
As agriculture spread from its centers in southeast Asia, these pre-Australoid
forager people moved farther southward to New Guinea and Australia. ..."
14. ^ Revathi Rajkumar et al., Phylogeny and antiquity of M macrohaplogroup
inferred from complete mt DNA sequence of Indian specific lineages, BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2005, 5:26 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-26
15. ^ a b K.V. Zvelebil (1982), The Irula language, O. Harrassowitz,
ISBN 3447022477, http://books.google.com/?id=NlSCAAAAIAAJ, "... into the
low jungles of the Nilgiris (such movement might have been instigated eg by the
advancing Australoids pushing out an earlier pre-Australoid ...)"
16. ^ Stephen Fuchs (1974), The Aboriginal Tribes of India, Macmillan India,
http://books.google.com/?id=2hEkAAAAMAAJ, "... Guha thinks that the
Negritos were the earliest racial element in India. He believes that the Kadar,
Irulas and Panyans of south India have a Negrito strain, even though he admits
that they are not pure Negritos ..."
17. ^ S. Neeta and V.K. Kashyap (January 2004, Volume 49, Issue 1), Allelic
variation at 15 microsatellite loci in one important Australoid and two
Indocaucasoid groups of Chhattisgarh, India, Journal of Forensic Sciences,
ISSN 0022-1198,
http://www.astm.org/JOURNALS/FORENSIC/PAGES/JFS2003077.htm,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... Among the studied population groups, Oraon is a tribal
group, conventionally agriculture-based, ethnically Australoid. They are confined
to the small villages and do not prefer to marry outside their community
maintaining the genetic make-up without any admixture. ..."
18. ^ N. Saha and H.K. Goswami (1987, Vol. 37, No. 5), Some Blood Genetic
Markers in the Korkus of Central India, International Journal of Human and
Medical Genetics, http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?
Aktion=ShowAbstract&ArtikelNr=000153717&Ausgabe=237568&ProduktNr=2
24250, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... A sample of 102 individuals from the Korkus
tribe, an Australoid race inhabiting Central India, was studied for the
distribution of haemoglobin and ten red cell enzyme types ..."
19. ^ Tamil Literature Society (1963, Vol. 10), Tamil Culture, Academy of Tamil
Culture, http://books.google.com/?id=cNUgAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-25,
"... together with the evidence of archaeology would seem to suggest that the
original Dravidian-speakers entered India from Iran in the fourth millennium
BC ..."
20. ^ a b Namita Mukherjee, Almut Nebel, Ariella Oppenheim and Partha P.
Majumder (December 2001, Vol. 80, No. 3), "High-resolution analysis of Y-
chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from
central Asia and West Asia into India" (PDF), Journal of Genetics (Springer
India), http://www.springerlink.com/content/qw238444x1q3128h/fulltext.pdf,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... More recently, about 15,000-10,000 years before
present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that
extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another
eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a
part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated
to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987).
Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into
India about 4,000-3,000 ybp ..."
21. ^ Dhavendra Kumar (2004), Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent,
Springer, ISBN 1402012152, http://books.google.com/?id=bpl0LXKj13QC,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and
Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite
variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion
of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This
migration originated in wha was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to
the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian
languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ..."
22. ^ Frank Raymond Allchin and George Erdosy (1995), The Archaeology of Early
Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 9780521376952, http://books.google.com/?id=EfZRVIjjZHYC,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... There has also been a fairly general agreement that the
Proto-Indoaryan speakers at one time lived on the steppes of Central Asia and
that at a certain time they moved southwards through Bactria and Afghanistan,
and perhaps the Caucasus, into Iran and India-Pakistan (Burrow 1973;
Harmatta 1992) ..."
23. ^ Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund (1998), High-resolution analysis of Y-
chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from
central Asia and West Asia into India, Routledge, ISBN 0415154820,
http://books.google.com/?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... During
 the last decades intensive archaeological research in Russia and the Central
Asian Republics of the former Soviet Union as well as in Pakistan and northern
India has considerably enlarged our knowledge about the potential ancestors of
the Indo-Aryans and their relationship with cultures in west, central and south
Asia. Excavations in southern Russia and Central Asia convinced the
international community of archaeologists that the Eurasian steppes had once
been the original home of the speakers of Indo-European language ..."
24. ^ Richard Cordaux , Gunter Weiss, Nilmani Saha and Mark Stoneking (2004),
"The Northeast Indian Passageway: A Barrier or Corridor for Human
Migrations?", Molecular Biology and Evolution (Society for Molecular Biology
and Evolution) 21 (8): 1525–33, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh151, PMID 15128876,
http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/21/8/1525, retrieved 2008-11-
25, "... Our coalescence analysis suggests that the expansion of Tibeto-Burman
speakers to northeast India most likely took place within the past 4,200 years ..."
25. ^ a b Jim Cummins and David Corson (1999), Bilingual Education, Springer,
ISBN 0792348060, http://books.google.com/?id=x1aw6j7xHpwC, retrieved
2008-11-25, "... over one million speakers each: Bhili (Indo-Aryan) 4.5 million;
Santali (Austric) 4.2 m; Gondi (Dravidian) 2.0 m; and Kurukh (Dravidian) 1.3
million ..."
26. ^ a b R. Khongsdier, Nandita Mukherjee (2003, Vol. 122, Issue 2), "Growth and
nutritional status of Khasi boys in Northeast India relating to exogamous
marriages and socioeconomic classes", American Journal of Physical
Anthropology, http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/104533560/abstract,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The Khasis are one of the Indo-Mongoloid tribes in
Northeast India. They speak the Monkhmer language, which belongs to the
Austro-Asiatic group (Das, 1978) ..."
27. ^ a b Govinda Chandra Rath (2006), Tribal Development in India: The
Contemporary Debate, SAGE, ISBN 0761934235, http://books.google.com/?
id=BxDKhOnWwOsC, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The Car Nicobarese are of
Mongoloid stock ... The Nicobarese speak different languages of the Nicobarese
group, which belongs to an Austro-Asiatic language sub-family ..."
28. ^ a b Malini Srivastava (2007), "The Sacred Complex of Munda Tribe" (PDF),
Anthropologist, http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-09-0-
000-000-2007-Web/Anth-09-4-000-07-Abst-PDF/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-
Srivastava-M/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-Srivastava-M-Tt.pdf, retrieved 2008-11-25,
"... Racially, they are proto-australoid and speak Mundari dialect of Austro-
Asiatic ..."
29. ^ a b A. B. Chaudhuri (1993), State Formation Among Tribals: A Quest for Santal
Identity, Gyan Publishing House, ISBN 8121204224, http://books.google.com/?
id=rhMXAAAAIAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The Santal is a large Proto-
Australoid tribe found in West Bengal, northern Orissa, Bihar, Assam as also in
Bangladesh ... The solidarity having been broken, the Santals are gradually
adopting languages of the areas inhabited, like Oriya in Orissa, Hindi in Bihar
and Bengali in West Bengal and Bangladesh ..."
30. ^ A. B. Chaudhuri (1949), Tribal Heritage: A Study of the Santals, Lutterworth
Press, http://books.google.com/?id=PpFCAAAAIAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-25, "...
 The Santals belong to his second "main race", the Proto-Australoid, which he
considers arrived in India soon after the Negritos ..."
31. ^ U. Shankarkumar (1(2): 91-94 (2003)), "A Correlative Study of HLA, Sickle
Cell Gene and G6PD Deficiency with Splenomegaly and Malaria Incidence
Among Bhils and Pawra Tribes from Dhadgon, Dhule, Maharastra" (PDF),
Studies of Tribes and Tribals, http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T%20&
%20T/T%20&%20T-01-0-000-000-2003-Web/T%20&%20T-01-2-091-174-
2003-Abst-PDF/T%20&%20T-01-2-091-094-2003-Shankar/T%20&%20T-01-2-
091-094-2003-Shankar.pdf, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... The Bhils are one of the
largest tribes concentrated mainly in Western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Eastern Gujarat and Northern Maharastra. Racially they were classified as
Gondids, Malids or Proto-Australoid, but their social history is still a mystery
(Bhatia and Rao, 1986) ..."
32. ^ a b Aloysius Irudayam and Jayshree P. Mangubhai, India Village Reconstruction
& Development Project (2004), Adivasis Speak Out: Atrocities Against Adivasis
in Tamil Nadu, Books for Change, ISBN 8187380780, http://books.google.com/?
id=MBduAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... uncivilised ... These forests
and land territories assume a territorial identity precisely because they are the
extension of the Adivasis' collective personality ..."
33. ^ C.R. Bijoy, Core Committee of the All India Coordinating Forum of
Adivasis/Indigenous Peoples (February 2003), "The Adivasis of India - A History
of Discrimination, Conflict, and Resistance", PUCL Bulletin (People's Union for
Civil Liberties, India), http://www.pucl.org/Topics/Dalit-tribal/2003/adivasi.htm,
retrieved 2008-11-25, "... Adivasis are not, as a general rule, regarded as unclean
by caste Hindus in the same way as Dalits are. But they continue to face
prejudice (as lesser humans), they are socially distanced and often face violence
from society ..."
34. ^ a b Thakorlal Bharabhai Naik (1956), The Bhils: A Study, Bharatiya Adimjati
Sevak Sangh, http://books.google.com/?id=NogcAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-
11-25, "... Valmiki, from whose pen this great epic had its birth, was himself a
Bhil named Valia, according to the traditional accounts of his life ..."
35. ^ Edward Balfour (1885), The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern
Asia, Bernard Quaritch, http://books.google.com/?id=hVsIAAAAQAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-26, "... In Mewar, the Grasia is of mixed Bhil and Rajput descent, paying
tribute to the Rana of Udaipur ..."
36. ^ R.K. Sinha (1995), The Bhilala of Malwa, Anthropological survey of India,
ISBN 9788185579085, http://books.google.com/?id=c_ltAAAAMAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-26, "... the Bhilala are commonly considered to be a mixed group who
sprung from the marriage alliances of the immigrant male Rajputs and the Bhil
women of the central India ..."
37. ^ a b R. Singh (2000), Tribal Beliefs, Practices and Insurrections, Anmol
Publications Pvt. Ltd., ISBN 8126105046, http://books.google.com/?
id=MWbenCIeK6oC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The Munda Parha was known as
'Manki', while his Oraon counterpart was called 'Parha Raja.' The lands these
adivasis occupied were regarded to be the village's patrimony ... The Gond rajas
of Chanda and Garha Mandla were not only the hereditary leaders of their Gond
 subjects, but also held sway over substantial communities of non-tribals who
recognized them as their feudal lords ..."
38. ^ Milind Gunaji (2005), Offbeat Tracks in Maharashtra: A Travel Guide, Popular
Prakashan, ISBN 8171546692, http://books.google.com/?id=JIjmDLardesC,
retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The Navegaon is one of the forests in Maharashtra
where the natives of this land still live and earn their livelihood by carrying out
age old activities like hunting, gathering forest produce and ancient methods of
farming. Beyond the Kamkazari lake is the Dhaavalghat, which is home to
adivasis. They also have a temple here, the shrine of Lord Waghdev ..."
39. ^ Surajit Sinha, Centre for Studies in Social Sciences (1987), Tribal polities and
state systems in pre-colonial eastern and north eastern India, K.P. Bagchi & Co.,
ISBN 8170740142, http://books.google.com/?id=H_S1AAAAIAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-26, "... The way in which and the extent to which tribal support had been
crucial in establishing a royal dynasty have been made quite clear ... tribal
loyalty, help and support were essential in establishing a ruling family ..."
40. ^ Hugh Chisholm (1910), The Encyclopedia Britannica, The Encyclopedia
Britannica Co., http://books.google.com/?id=g8Xtkt1Qw3oC, retrieved 2008-11-
26, "... The 16th century saw the establishment of a powerful Gond kingdom by
Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th of the petty Gond rajas of
Garha-Mandla, and extended his dominions to include Saugor and Damoh on the
Vindhyan plateau, Jubbulpore and Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda valley, and
Seoni on the Satpura highlands ..."
41. ^ a b Piya Chatterjee (2001), A Time for Tea: Women, Labor, and Post/colonial
Politics on an Indian Plantation, Duke University Press, ISBN 0822326744,
http://books.google.com/?id=Ldw2lX7u-HsC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... Among
the Munda, customary forms of land tenure known as khuntkatti stipulated that
land belonged communally to the village, and customary rights of cultivation,
branched from corporate ownership. Because of Mughal incursions, non-
Jharkhandis began to dominate the agrarian landscape, and the finely wrought
system of customary sharing of labor, produce and occupancy began to crumble.
The process of dispossession and land alienation, in motion since the mid-
eighteenth century, was given impetus by British policies that established both
zamindari and ryotwari systems of land revenue administration. Colonial efforts
toward efficient revenue collection hinged on determining legally who had
proprietal rights to the land ..."
42. ^ a b Ulrich van der Heyden and Holger Stoecker (2005), Mission und macht im
Wandel politischer Orientierungen: Europäische Missionsgesellschaften in
politischen Spannungsfeldern in Afrika und Asien zwischen 1800 und 1945, Franz
Steiner Verlag, ISBN 3515084231, http://books.google.com/?
id=N7JfoaVbMGgC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The permanent settlement Act had
an adverse effect upon the fate of the Adivasis for, 'the land which the aboriginals
had rested from the jungle and cultivated as free men from generation was, by a
stroke of pen, declared to be the property of the Raja (king) and the Jagirdars.'
The alien became the Zamindars (Landlords) while the sons of the soil got
reduced to mere tenants. Now, it was the turn of the Jagirdars-turned-Zamindars
who further started leasing out land to the new comers, who again started
 encroaching Adivasi land. The land grabbing thus went on unabated. By the year
1832 about 6,411 Adivasi villages were alienated in this process ..."
43. ^ O.P. Ralhan (2002), Encyclopaedia of Political Parties, Anmol Publications
Pvt. Ltd., ISBN 8174888659, http://books.google.com/?id=_1gQS3LOafAC,
retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The Permanent Settlement was 'nothing short of the
confiscation of raiyat lands in favor of the zamindars.' ... Marx says '... in Bengal
as in Madras and Bombay, under the zamindari as under the ryotwari, the raiyats
who form 11/12ths of the whole Indian population have been wretchedly
pauperised.' To this may be added the inroads made by the Company's
Government upon the village community of the tribals (the Santhals, Kols,
Khasias etc.) ... There was a wholesale destruction of 'the national tradition.'
Marx observes: 'England has broken down the entire framework of Indian society
..."
44. ^ Govind Kelkar and Dev Nathan (1991), Gender and Tribe: Women, Land and
Forests in Jharkhand, Kali for Women, ISBN 1856490351,
http://books.google.com/?id=cTluAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... of the
features of the adivasi land systems. These laws also showed that British colonial
rule had passed on to a new stage of exploitation ... Forests were the property of
the zamindar or the state ..."
45. ^ a b William Wilson Hunter, Hermann Michael Kisch, Andrew Wallace Mackie,
Charles James O'Donnell and Herbert Hope Risley (1877), A Statistical Account
of Bengal, Trübner, http://books.google.com/?id=R2MOAAAAQAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-26, "... The Kol insurrection of 1831, though, no doubt, only the bursting
forth of a fire that had long been smouldering, was fanned into flame by the
following episode:- The brother of the Maharaja, who was holder of one of the
maintenance grants which comprised Sonpur, a pargana in the southern portion
of the estate, gave farms of some of the villages over the heads of the Mankis and
Mundas, to certain Muhammadans, Sikhs and others, who has obtained his
favour ... not only was the Manki dispossessed, but two of his sisters were
seduced or ravished by these hated foreigners ... one of them ..., it was said, had
abducted and dishonoured the Munda's wife ..."
46. ^ Radhakanta Barik (2006), Land and Caste Politics in Bihar, Shipra
Publications, ISBN 8175413050, http://books.google.com/?
id=lGNuAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... As usually the zamindars were
the moneylenders, they could pressurize the tenants to concede to high rent ..."
47. ^ Shashank Shekhar Sinha (2005), Restless Mothers and Turbulent Daughters:
Situating Tribes in Gender Studies, Stree, ISBN 8185604738,
http://books.google.com/?id=NzoqAAAAYAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... In
addition, many tribals were forced to pay private taxes ... ..."
48. ^ a b Economic and Political Weekly, Sameeksha Trust, 1974, V.9, No.6-8,
http://books.google.com/?id=DQUoAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The
Adivasis spend their life-times working for the landlord-moneylenders and, in
some cases, even their children are forced to work for considerable parts of their
lives to pay off debts ..."
49. ^ Sita Venkateswar (2004), Development and Ethnocide: Colonial Practices in
the Andaman Islands, IWGIA, ISBN 8791563046, http://books.google.com/?
 id=XFETVExNUYgC, "... As I have suggested previously, it is probable that
some disease was introduced among the coastal groups by Lieutenant Colebrooke
and Blair's first settlement in 1789, resulting in a marked reduction of their
population. The four years that the British occupied their initial site on the south-
east of South Andaman were sufficient to have decimated the coastal populations
of the groups referred to as Jarawa by the Aka-bea-da ..."
50. ^ Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Francesco Cavalli-Sforza (1995), The Great Human
Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution, Basic Books,
ISBN 0201442310, http://books.google.com/?id=ApuuiwUkEZ0C, "... Contact
with whites, and the British in particular, has virtually destroyed them. Illness,
alcohol, and the will of the colonials all played their part; the British governor of
the time mentions in his diary that he received instructions to destroy them with
alcohol and opium. He succeeded completely with one group. The others reacted
violently ..."
51. ^ Paramjit S. Judge (1992), Insurrection to Agitation: The Naxalite Movement in
Punjab, Popular Prakashan, ISBN 8171545270, http://books.google.com/?
id=HvYpVtBXw5kC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The Santhal insurrection in
1855-56 was a consequence of the establishment of the permanent Zamindari
Settlement introduced by the British in 1793 as a result of which the Santhals had
been dispossesed of the land that they had been cultivating for centuries.
Zamindars, moneylenders, traders and government officials exploited them
ruthlessly. The consequence was a violent revolt by the Santhals which could only
be suppressed by the army ..."
52. ^ The Indian Journal of Social Work, Department of Publications, Tata Institute
of Social Sciences, 1956, v.59, http://books.google.com/?id=q0c0AAAAIAAJ,
retrieved 2008-11-26, "... Revolts rose with unfailing regularity and were
suppressed with treachery, brute force, tact, cooption and some reforms ..."
53. ^ Roy Moxham (2003), Tea, Carroll & Graf Publishers, ISBN 0786712279,
http://books.google.com/?id=FAiHU5JSYwwC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... many
of the labourers came from Chota Nagpur District ... home to the Adivasis, the
most popular workers with the planters - the '1st class jungley.' As one of the
planters, David Crole, observed: 'planters, in a rough and ready way, judge the
worth of a coolie by the darkness of the skin.' In the last two decades of the
nineteenth century 350,000 coolies went from Chota Nagpur to Assam ..."
54. ^ James Minahan and Leonard W. Doob (1996), Nations Without States: A
Historical Dictionary of Contemporary National Movements, Greenwood Press,
ISBN 0313283540, http://books.google.com/?id=2yFnAAAAMAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-25, "... The Adivasi tribes encompass the pre-Dravidian holdovers from
ancient India ..."
55. ^ Sarina Singh, Joe Bindloss, Paul Clammer and Janine Eberle (2005), India,
Lonely Planet, ISBN 1740596943, http://books.google.com/?
id=Fk8FQa2ZSFQC, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... Although the northeast states
make up just 7.5% of the geographical area of India, the region is home to 20%
of India's Adivasis (tribal people). The following are the main tribes ... Nagas ...
Monpas ... Apatani & Adi ... Khasi ..."
56. ^ a b Moirangthem Kirti Singh (1988), Religion and Culture of Manipur, Manas
Publications, ISBN 8170490219, http://books.google.com/?
id=doQeAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The Meiteis began to think that
root cause of their present unrest was their contact with the Mayangs, the
outsider from the rest of India in matters of trade, commerce, religious belief and
the designation of the Meiteis as caste Hindus in the Constitution of India. The
policy of reservations for the scheduled castes and tribes in key posts began to
play havoc ..."
57. ^ Man, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1972, v.7,
http://books.google.com/?id=Ou8rAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... Nor,
for that matter, does a traits approach to drawing distinctions between tribe and
caste lead to any meaningful interpretation of social or civilizational processes.
Social boundaries must be defined in each case (community or regional society)
with reference to the modes of social classification, on the one hand, and
processes of social interaction, on the other. It is in their inability to relate these
two aspects of the social phenomenon through a model of social reality that most
behavioural exercises come to grief ..."
58. ^ Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (1959), Lōkayata: A Study in Ancient Indian
Materialism, People's Publishing House, http://books.google.com/?
id=AJccAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... Even the authors of our
traditional law-codes and other works did not know whether to call a particular
group of backward people a caste or a tribe ..."
59. ^ Robert Goldmann and A. Jeyaratnam Wilson (1984), From Independence to
Statehood: Managing Ethnic Conflict in Five African and Asian States, Pinter,
ISBN 0861873548, http://books.google.com/?id=DVwiAAAAMAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-26, "... Because the question of what groups are to be given preferences
is constitutionally and politically open, the demand for preferences becomes a
device for political mobilisation. Politicians can mobilise members of their caste,
religious or linguistic community around the demand for inclusion on the list of
those to be given preferences ... As preferences were extended to backward
castes, and as more benefits were given to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes,
the 'forward' castes have ..."
60. ^ a b Col. Ved Prakash (2006), Encyclopaedia of North-east India, Vol# 2, Atlantic
Publishers & Distributors, ISBN 8126907045, http://books.google.com/?id=Z-
5T8kpi5tkC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... An angry mob of Koch-Rajbongshis (KRs)
ransacked 4-8-03 the BJP office, Guwahati, demanding ST status for the KRs ...
the KRs have been demanding the ST status for long, and the Bodos are stoutly
opposed to it ..."
61. ^ "Gujjars enforce blockade; Delhi tense", The Times of India, 2008-05-29,
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/3082069.cms, retrieved 2008-11-
26, "... Gujjars on Thursday blocked road and rail traffic in the capital and
adjoining areas as part of their 'NCR rasta roko' agitation ... The NCR agitation,
called by All India Gujjar Mahasabha, is in support of the community's demand
for Scheduled Tribe status in Rajasthan ..."
62. ^ "What the Meena-Gujjar conflict is about", Rediff, 2007-06-01,
http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jun/01raj4.htm, retrieved 2008-11-26, "...
 Rajasthan is sitting on a potential caste war between the Gujjars and Meenas
with the former demanding their entry into the Schedule Tribes list while the
Meenas are looking to keep their turf intact by resisting any tampering with the
ST quota ..."
63. ^ Mamta Rajawat (2003), Scheduled Castes in India: a Comprehensive Study,
Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., ISBN 8126113391, http://books.google.com/?
id=p2wbt1QDTEgC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... endogamy is basic to the
morphology of caste but for its origin and sustenance one has to see beyond ...
D.D. Kosambi says that the fusion of tribal elements into society at large lies at
the foundation of the caste system; Irfan Habib concurs, suggesting that when
tribal people were absorbed they brought with them their endogamous
customs ..."
64. ^ a b Mohammad Abbas Khan (2005), Social Development in Twenty First
Century, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., ISBN 8126121300,
http://books.google.com/?id=1nQZzWJDzjAC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... in
North India, high caste Hindus regard the village as an exogamous unit. Girls
born within the village are called 'village daughters' and they do not cover their
faces before local men, whereas girls who come into the village by marriage do
so ... With Christians and Muslims, the elementary or nuclear family is the
exogamous unit. Outside of it marriages are possible ... Lineage exogamy also
exists among the Muslim Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir ..."
65. ^ Richard V. Weekes (1984), Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey,
Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313246408, http://books.google.com/?
id=aVdIAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The preference for in-marriage
produces the reticulated kinship system characteristic of Punjabi Muslim society,
as opposed to Hindu lineage exogamy and preference for marriage outside one's
natal village ..."
66. ^ Lalita Prasad Vidyarthi (2004), South Asian Culture: An Anthropological
Perspective, Oriental Publishers & Distributors, http://books.google.com/?
id=HwUNAAAAIAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... The tribal communities, by and
large, also practise clan exogamy, which means marrying outside the totemic
division of a tribe ..."
67. ^ Georg Pfeffer (1982), Status and Affinity in Middle India, F. Steiner,
ISBN 3515039139, http://books.google.com/?id=S_G1AAAAIAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-26, "... Elwin documents the strict observance of this rule: Out of 300
marriages recorded, not a single one broke the rule of village exogamy ..."
68. ^ Rajendra K. Sharma (2004), Indian Society, Institutions and Change:
Institutions and Change, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, ISBN 8171566650,
http://books.google.com/?id=jBOh24IJ9t8C, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... Among
many Indian tribes it is the recognized custom to marry outside the village. This
restriction is prevalent in the Munda and other tribes of Chhota Nagpur of
Madhya Pradesh ... the Naga tribe of Assam is divided into Khels. Khel is the
name given to the residents of the particular place, and people of one Khel
cannot marry each other ..."
69. ^ John Vincent Ferreira (1965), Totemism in India, Oxford University Press,
http://books.google.com/?id=u7EwAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-26, "... there
 is every reason to believe that the inspiration leading to the formation of
exogamous gotras came from the aborigines ..."
70. ^ Monika Böck and Aparna Rao (2000), Culture, Creation, and Procreation:
Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice, Berghahn Books,
ISBN 1571819126, http://books.google.com/?id=6HZ-UXaU9y0C, retrieved
2008-11-26, "... Kalasha kinship is indeed orchestrated through a rigorous
system of patrilineal descent defined by lineage exogamy ... Lineage exogamy
thus distinguishes Kalasha descent groups as discretely bounded corporations, in
contrast to the nonexogamous 'sliding lineages' (Bacon 1956) of surrounding
Muslims ..."
71. ^ Thomas R. Trautmann (1997), Aryans and British India, University of
California Press, ISBN 0520205464, http://books.google.com/?
id=Fu5h2T7dZFEC, retrieved 2008-11-26, "...The radiating, segmentary
character of the underlying genealogical figure requires that the specifications be
unilineal ... we have in the Dharmasastra doctrine of jatis a theory of
ethnogenesis through intermixture or marriage of persons of different varnas,
and secondary and tertiary intermixtures of the original ones, leading to a
multitude of units, rather than the radiating segmentary structure of ethnogenesis
by fission or descent ..."
72. ^ Todd Scudiere (1997), Aspects of Death and Bereavement Among Indian
Hindus and American Christians: A Survey and Cross-cultural Comparison,
University of Wisconsin - Madison, http://books.google.com/?
id=gQVlAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-25, "... the Vedic Aryan was not
particularly eager to enter heaven, he was too much this-worldly oriented. A
notion of reincarnation was not introduced until later. However, there was a
concept of a universal force - an idea of an underlying monistic reality that was
later called Brahman ..."
73. ^ a b S.G. Sardesai (1986), Progress and Conservatism in Ancient India, People's
Publishing House, http://books.google.com/?id=kscNAAAAIAAJ, retrieved
2008-11-25, "... The centre of Rig Vedic religion was the Yajna, the sacrificial
fire. ... There is no Atma, no Brahma, no Moksha, no idol worship in the Rig Veda
..."
74. ^ Hajime Nakamura and Ronald Burr (1975), Parallel Developments: A
Comparative History of Ideas, Kodansha, ISBN 9780870112720,
http://books.google.com/?id=LRErAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-12-12, "... even
in the prehistoric period when the Indo-Aryans and the Persians formed a single
people, they performed sacrifices (Vedic yajna: Avestan yasna), and that they
already had a sacred drink (Vedic soma: Avestan haoma) ..."
75. ^ a b Shiv Kumar Tiwari (2002), Tribal Roots of Hinduism, Sarup & Sons,
ISBN 8176252999, http://books.google.com/?id=n0gwfmPFTLgC, retrieved
2008-12-12
76. ^ Kumar Suresh Singh (1985), Tribal Society in India: An Anthropo-historical
Perspective, Manohar, http://books.google.com/?id=WIAiAAAAMAAJ, retrieved
2008-12-12, "... Shiva was a "tribal deity" to begin with and forest-dwelling
communities, including those who have ceased to be tribals and those who are
tribals today ..."
 77. ^ a b c d e f (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
78. ^ Shaap to Baali, archived from the original on 2009-10-24,
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79. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saptarshi
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96. ^ HEUZE, Gérard: Où Va l’Inde Moderne? L’Harmattan, Paris 1993. A. Tirkey:
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97. ^ "Tribal Protests and Rebellions'
98. ^ Page 63 Tagore Without Illusions by Hitendra Mitra
99. ^ Sameeksha Trust, P. 1229 Economic and Political Weekly
100. ^ P. 4 “Freedom Movement in Khurda” Dr. Atul Chandra Pradhan
101. ^ P. 111 The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad: A Connected Account By
Hyderabad (India : State)
102. ^ P. 32 Social and Political Awakening Among the Tribals of Rajasthan
By Gopi Nath Sharma
103. ^ P. 420 Who's who of Freedom Struggle in Andhra Pradesh By Sarojini
Regani

[edit] Further reading

• The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, by R.V. Russell, 1916 (E
book)
• Elst, Koenraad. Who is a Hindu? (2001) ISBN 81-85990-74-3
• Raj, Aditya & Papia Raj (2004) “Linguistic Deculturation and the Importance of
Popular Education among the Gonds in India” Adult Education and
Development 62: 55-61
• Vindicated by Time: The Niyogi Committee Report (edited by S.R. Goel, 1998)
(1955)
• Tribal Heritage of India, by Shyama Charan Dube, Indian Institute of Advanced
Study, Indian Council of Social Science Research, Anthropological Survey of
India. Published by Vikas Pub. House, 1977. ISBN 0-7069-0531-8.
• Tribal Movements in India, by Kumar Suresh Singh. Published by Manohar,
1982.
• Tribal Society in India: An Anthropo-historical Perspective, by Kumar Suresh
Singh. Published by Manohar, 1985.