MATHEMATICS IN NATURE, PATTERN AND
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
MATHEMATICS - study of numbers and
arithmetic operations
Patterns - regular, repeated, or
recurring forms or designs
Sequence - ordered list of numbers,
called terms that may have repeated
values
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
- invented by Leonardo of Pisa in 1175 AD
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 …
- this is called the Fibonacci Sequence
Fibonacci Numbers – series of numbers
that often occur in nature
Golden Ratio – irrational number and is
typically represented by the Greek letter
Phi “φ” = 1.618034…
- It is also known as the Golden Section,
Golden Mean, Divine Proportion, or Greek
letter Phi, which exists when a line is
divided into two parts, and the longer
part (a) divided by the smaller part (b)
is equal to the sum of (a)+(b) divided by
(a), which is both equal to 1.618.
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
1. Precise (able to make very fine
distinction)
2. Concise (able to say things
briefly)
3. Powerful (able to express complex
thoughts with relative cases)
Ideas regarding sentences are explored.
English sentences have verbs, so do
mathematical sentences.
In mathematical sentences,
3 + 4 = 7
verb is: = / equal sign
If = is the verb, what is + ?
connective – the symbol which used to
connect objects of a given type
Mathematical Sentence
- the analogue of an English sentence
- correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols that state a complete thought
Truth of Sentence
- can be true or false
- the notion of “truth” is a fundamental
importance in the mathematical language
Convention – help readers distinguish
between different types of mathematical
expression
Expression
- mathematical analogue of English noun
- correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols used to represent a mathematical
object of interest
- does NOT state a complete thought
TERMINOLOGIES

Complex Numbers – of the form a + bi,

where a and b are real numbers and i = √-
1. A complex number is sometimes called
Gaussian integer.

Real Numbers – a value that represents a

quantity along a continuous line

Imaginary Numbers – denote by i, is the

result in taking the nth root of a
negative number

Irrational Numbers – one which is not

rational; a number which cannot be
expressed as a quotient of two integers

Rational Numbers – one which can be

expressed as a quotient of two integers

Fraction – part of whole and is expressed

in a form of a/b where a and b are R and
it is the numerator and denominator of a
fraction respectively

Integers – number that is written without

a fractional component; consists of
natural numbers (1, 2, 3 …) (0) and (-1,
-2, -3 …)

Negative Integer – number which is less

than zero but not a fraction or decimal

Whole Numbers – simply the numbers 0, 1,

2, 3, 4, 5 …, there is no fractional or
decimal and no negative

Zero – 0; the absence of a quantity or a

magnitude; it is either positive nor
negative

Natural or Counting Numbers– numbers used

for counting form one to infinity
TRANSLATING WORDS TO SYMBOLS
EXAMPLES: THE LANGUAGE OF SETS

1. Twelve more than a number Use of the word “set” as a formal

12+x mathematical term was introduced in 1879
2. Six times a number is fifty-four by George Cantor.
6x=54
3. Three more than seven times a SET – collection of well-defined objects
number is nine more than five times
the number Note: A set is denoted with braces or
3+7x=9+5x curly brackets {} and label or name the
set by a capital letter such as A, B, C,
…

Examples:

A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5.

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

A set of English alphabet from a to d.

B ={a, b, c, d }

A set of all even positive integers.

C = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}

ELEMENT OF A SET

If S is a set, the notation x ∈ S means

that x is an element of S.

Each member of the set is called an

element and the ∈ notation means that an
item belongs to a set.

Example:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
1 ∈ A; 3 ∈ A; 5 ∈ A

In the given set A above, we could not

see 6 as an element of set A, thus

6 is not an element set of A / 6 ∉ A.

Note: each element in a set should be

separated by a comma

TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS

1. Unit Set – contains only one

element
A = {1} ; B = {c} ; C = {banana}

SETS AND ITS BASIC OPERATIONS 2. Empty Set or Null Set – has no
element
 A = { }
3. Finite Set – set that the elements
in a given set is countable
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
B = {a, b, c, d}
4. Infinite Set – set that the
elements in a given set have no end
or not countable
A = { …-2, -2, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…}
A set of counting numbers
5. Cardinal Number; n – numbers used
to measure the number of elements
in a given set
A = {2, 4, 6, 8} n = 4
B = {a, c, e} n = 3
6. Equal set – two sets are said to be
equal if and only if they have an
equal number of cardinalities and
the elements are identical
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ;
B = {3, 5, 2, 4, 1}
7. Equivalent Set – two sets are said
to be equivalent if and only if
they have the exact number of
elements
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ;
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
8. Universal Set – U is the set of all
elements under discussion
A set of English alphabet ; U = {a,
b,c, d, … z}
A set of vowels; U = {a, e, i, o,
u}
9. Joint Set – two sets are said to be
joint sets if and only if they have
common element/s
A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6}
Hence, set A and B are joint sets
since they have common elements
such as 2
10. Disjoint Set – two sets said to
be disjoint set if and only if they
are mutually exclusive or if they
don’t have common element/s
A = {1, 2, 3} and C = {4, 6, 8}
TWO WAYS OF DESCRIBING A SET
1. Roaster or Tabular Method – done by
listing or tabulating the elements
of the set
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
2. Ruler or Set-builder Method – done
by stating or describing the common
characteristics of the elements of
the set
A = { x | x …} read as “A is a set
of x suxh that …”
Example:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {x | x is a counting number from 1 to
5}
A = { x | x ∈ N, x <6}
B = {a, b, c, d, … z}
B = {x | x ∈ English alphabet}
B = {x | x is an English alphabet}
SUBSETS
A subset, A ⊆ B means that every element
of A is also an element of B
- If x ∈ A, then x ∈ B, in particular,
every set is a subset of itself, A ⊆ A.
A subset is called a proper subset, If A
is a proper subset of B, if A ⊂ B and
there is at least one element of B that
is not in A:
- If x ⊂ A, then x ⊂ B and there is an
element b such that b ∈ B and b ∈ A.
Note: the empty set, or {} has no
elements and is a subset of every set for
every set A, A ⊂ A.
ORDERED PAIR
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b)
denotes the ordered pair consisting of a
and b together with the specification
that “a” is the first element of the pair
and “b” is the second element. Two
ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal
if a = c and b = d.
(a, b) = (c, d) means that a= c and b = d
OPERATION ON SETS
 1. Union of Sets – the union of sets A
and B, denoted by A ∪ B
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
2. Intersection of Sets – the
intersection of sets A and B,
denoted by A ∩ B
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5};
then A ∩ B = {1, 2}
3. Difference of Sets – difference of
sets A from B, denoted by A – B
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5};
then A – B = {3}
Note: in general A – B ≠ B - A
4. Complement of Set – for a set A,
the difference U – A, where U is
the universe, is called the
complement of A and it is denoted
by Ac. Thus Ac is the set of
everything that is not in A.
Let U = {a, e, i, o, u} and A = {a,
e}; then, Ac = {i, o, u}
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
- given the sets A and B, the Cartesian
product of A and B, denoted by A x B and
reads as “A cross B” is the set of all
ordered pair (a, b) where a is in A and b
is in B.
AxB = {(a,b)| a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Note: A x B is not equal to B x A
Venn diagram – illustration of the
relationships between and among sets
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
RELATION
- A relation from set X to Y is the set
of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y)
such that to each element x of the set X
there corresponds at least one element of
the set Y.
- Let A and B set, A relation R from A
to B is a subset of A x B. Given an
ordered pair (x, y) in A x B, x is
related to y by R, written x R y, if and
only if, (x, y) is in R.
The set A is called the domain of R and
the set B is called its co-domain.
Example:
Given a set of an ordered pairs:
{(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4,
-1), (5, 0)}
Domain are x = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Co-domain are y = {-5,-4,-3,-2,-1, 0}
ARROW DIAGRAM OF A RELATION
- Suppose R is a relation from a set A to
set B. The arrow diagram for R is
obtained as follows:
- Represents the elements of A as
points in one region and the elements of
B as points in another region
- For each x in A and y in B, draw
an arrow from x to y, and only if, x is
related to y by R
PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

REFLEXIVE – relation is reflexive if
every element of A is related to itself
Examples of reflexive relations:
- “is equal to” (equality)
- “is a subset of” (set inclusion)
- “is less than or equal to” and “is
greater than or equal to” (inequality)
- “divides” (divisibility)
SYMMETRIC – relation R on A is symmetric
if given a R b then b R a
A relation f from a set A to set B is
said to be function if every element of
set A has one and only one image in set
B.
A function F from set A to set B is a
relation with domain and co-domain that
satisfies the following two properties:
Is a function a relation?

TRANSITIVE – relation R on A is
transitive if given a R b and b R c then
a R c

Examples of reflexive relations:

- “is equal to” (equality)
- “is a subset of” (set inclusion)
- “is less than or equal to” and “is
greater than or equal to” (inequality)
- “divides” (divisibility)

If the set of ordered pairs have

different x-coordinates – it is a
function

If the set of ordered pairs have same x-

EQUIVALENCE RELATION – a relation that is
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive is
called an equivalence relation on A
coordinates- it is not a function but it
could be said a relation
Note: Y-coordinates have no bearing in
determining functions

Examples of equivalence relations: VERTICAL LINE TEST – relation is a

- the equality (“=”) relation between function if a vertical line drawn through
real numbers or sets its graph, passes through only one point
- the relation “is similar to” on the set
of all triangles
- the relation “has the same birthday as”
on the sets of all human beings
FUNCTION OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

Function is a relation in which every

input is paired with exactly one output.
 a. Sum or Difference of f and g, If polynomial of degree n defines a
denoted by f ± g is the function function f, f is called a polynomial
defined by (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x) function of degree n.

Linear Function
- f(x) is of degree 1

Quadratic Functions
- polynomial os of degree 2

Cubic Function
- polynomial is of degree 3
b. Product of f and g, denoted by f·g
Quartic and quintic Functions
is the function defined by (f·g)(x)
- polynomial is of degree 4 and 5
= f(x)·g(x)

c. Quotient of f and g denoted by f/g

is the function defined by
f(x)/g(x), where g(x) is not equal
to zero

d. Composite Function of f and g

denoted by f ∘ g is the function
defined by (f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x))

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
 BINARY OPERATION

THE PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBER

1. Closure Property
a + b ∈ R and ab ∈ R

2. Commutative Property
a + b = b + a and ab = ba

3. Associative Property
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c
= a(bc)

4. Distributive Property
a (b + c) = ab + ac or (a + b) c =
ac + bc

5. Identity
a + 0 = a and (a)(1) = a; the
identity element of addition is
zero (0) while the identity element
under multiplication is one (1)

6. Inverse
a = -a and a = 1/a = a−1
a + (-a) = 0 and (a)(1/a) = 1; so
the inverse of a is 1/a or a-1 in
multiplication
BINARY OPERATIONS
BINARY OPERATION
COMMUTATIVE BINARY OPERATIONS
- a binary operation * on a set A is said
to be commutative if x * y = y * x for
all elements x and y of A

Let G be a non-empty set. An operation * ASSOCIATIVE BINARY OPERATION

on G is said to be a binary operation on
G if for every pair of elements, a, b is
in G that is a, b ∈ G; the product a * b
∈ G.
Note: for each (a, b) ∈ G, we assign an
element a * b of G
In mathematics, a binary operation on a
set is a calculation that combines two
elements of the set (called operands) to
produce another element of the set.
- a binary operation * on a set A is said
to be associative if (x * y) * z (y * z)
for all elements x, y and z of A
INDENTITY ELEMENT AND INVERSE IN BINARY
OPERATION
Let * be a binary operation of a set S
i. An element e ∈ S is called a
left identity element if for all
a ∈ S, we have e * a = a
ii. An element e ∈ S is called a
right identity element if for
all a ∈ S, we have a * e = a
iii. An element e ∈ S is called an
identity element if for all a ∈
S, we have a * e = a and e * a =
a
Let “e” be the identity element in S and
a ∈ S, then b is called an inverse of the
element “a” if a * b = e and b * a = e
Note: a * b = b * a = e
If a ∈ S, then the inverse of “a” is
denoted by a−1.
Here -1 is not an exponent of a
A set is “closed” under operation if the
operation assigns to every ordered pair
of elements from the set an element of
the set
CAYLEY’S TABLE
A (binary) operation on a finite set can
be represented by a table. This is a
square grid with one row and one column
for each element in the set. The grid is
filled in so that the element in the row
belonging to x and the column belonging
to y is x * y.
A binary operation on a finite set (a set
with a limited number of elements) is
often displayed in a table that
demonstrates how the operation is
performed.
LOGIC AND FORMALITY
Logic – method of reasoning that involves
a series of statements, each of which
must be true if the statement before is
true
Formality – expression is completely
formal when it is context-independent and
precise; in mathematics, we are always
dealing in a formal way
MAJOR PART OF FORMALITY IN MATHEMATICS
1. Definition – a formal statement of
the meaning of a word or group of
words and it could stand alone
2. Theorem – a statement that the
result has been proved to be true
3. Proof – a rigorous mathematical
argument which unequivocally
demonstrates the truth of a given
proposition
DIFFERENT METHOD OF PROOF:
a. Deductive
b. Inductive
c. Direct Proof
d. Indirect Proof
e. Proof by Counterexample
f. Proof by Contradiction
4. Proposition – declarative statement
that is true or false but not both;
all types of proposition are
precise and concise
DIFFERENT PROPOSITION / LOGICAL
CONNECTIVES:
a. Negation
b. Conjunction
c. Disjunction
d. Conditional
e. Biconditional
5. Corollary - also a proposition
that follows with little or no
proof required from one already
proven
6. Lemma – it is a minor result that
has been proved to be true
7. Conjecture – it is an educated
guess that is based in known
information
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning
– type of reasoning that forms a
conclusion based on the observation and
patterns
- process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples
- does not guarantee a true result,
it only provides a means of making a
conjecture
- moves from specific observations
to general principles
In inductive reasoning, we use the “then”
and “now” approach.
“then” – to use the data to find pattern
and make prediction
“now” – to make a conjecture base on the
inductive reasoning / find a counter-
example
APPLICATION OF INDUCTIVE REASONING
(using inductive reasoning to solve a
problem)
Inductive reasoning is very essential to
solve some practical problems that you
may encounter. Within the use of
inductive reasoning, we can easily
predict a solution or an answer to a
certain problem.
 Deductive Reasoning – process of
reasoning from one or more statements to
reach a logically certain conclusion

Deductive Reasoning in Theory

GENERAL IDEAS

First minor premise that fits within

general truth

Second minor premise that fits within

first premise

SPECIFIC CONCLUSION

Note: there are some instances that Deductive Reasoning is the kind of
drawing conclusion using inductive reasoning in which, roughly the truth of
reasoning is not always true. Keep in the input propositions (the premises)
logically guarantees the truth of the
mind that just because a patter holds
output proposition (the conclusion),
true for a few cause, it does not mean provided that no mistake has been made in
that the pattern will continue. When you the reasoning.
use inductive reasoning, you have no
guarantee that your conclusion is Premises - be propositions that the
correct. reasoner believes or assumptions that the
reasoner is exploring

COUNTEREXAMPLE Syllogism – type of logical argument in

which pair of sentence serves as the
- a statement is a true statement premise and the third sentence serves as
provided that it is true for all cases. the conclusion / most basic form of
If you find one case for which a deductive reasoning
statement is not true, called a
counterexample, then the statement is a Examples:
false statement.
A is B; C is A. Therefore, B is C

All living things need water to survive.

Mammals are living things.
Therefore, Mammals need water to survive.

Note: the first two statements are called

premises; the last one is the conclusion;
two premises are the major and the minor
premises

SYLLOGISM
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- deductive reasoning where you arrive at There are 6 rules of syllogism. However,
a specific conclusion by examining two they mainly apply to categorical
other premises or ideas syllogism.
- derives from Greek word ‘syllogismos’
means conclusion or inference Rule One: There must be three terms: the
major premise, the minor premise, and the
Major Premise: statement “P” conclusion – no more, no less
Minor Premise: statement “Q”
Conclusion: statement “R” Rule Two: The minor premise must be
distributed in at least one other premise
Example:
Rule Three: Any terms distributed in the
Major Premise: All muscles are made out conclusion must be distributed in the
of a living tissue. relevant premise
Minor Premise: All humans have muscles.
Conclusion: All humans are made of a Rule Four: Do not use two negative
living tissue. premises

Rule Five: If one of the two premises are

TYPE OF SYLLOGISM negative, the conclusion must be negative

1. Categorical Syllogism – follow an Rule Six: From two universal premises, no

“If A is part of C, then B is part conclusion may be drawn
of C” logic
Major Premise: All cars have wheels. Note:
Minor Premise: I drive a car. - premises prove the conclusion, not
Conclusion: My car has wheels. justify it;
- deductive reasoning is meant to
2. Conditional Syllogism – follow an demonstrate that the conclusion is
“If A is true, then B is true” absolutely true based on the logic of the
pattern of logic; often referred to premises
as hypothetical syllogism because - for any given set of premises, if the
the arguments aren’t always valid, conclusion is guaranteed, the argument is
sometimes they’re merely an said to be valid
accepted truth - if the conclusion is not guaranteed,
Major Premise: Roderick is smart. the argument is said to be invalid
Conclusion: Roderick’s parents are smart. - DO NOT CONFUSE TRUTH WITH VALIDITY

3. Disjunctive Syllogism – follow a

“Since A is true, B must be false”
premise; they don’t state if a
major or minor premise is correct,
but it’s understood that one of
them is correct
Major Premise: This cake is either
vanilla or chocolate.
Minor Premise: It’s not chocolate.
Conclusion: This cake is vanilla.

RULES OF SYLLOGISM INTUITION, PROOF AND CERTAINTY

 farther the line, it seems to look line
longer than the other yellow line below.
INTUITION
– it is an immediate understanding or
knowing something without reasoning
- it comes from noticing, thinking and
questioning

As a student, you can build and improve

your intuition by doing the following:

1. Be observant and see things PROOF – a sequence of formula each of

visually with your critical which is either an axiom or follows
thinking earlier formula by a rule of inference
2. Make your own manipulation on the
things that you have noticed and CERTAINTY – a perfect knowledge that has
observed total security from error, or the mental
3. Do the right thinking and make still of being without doubt
connections with it before doing
the solution A mathematical proof is a list of
statements in which every statement is
one of the following:

(1) an axiom
(2) derived from previous statements
by a rule of inference
(3) a previously derived theorem

There is a hierarchy of terminology that

gives opinions about the importance of
derived truths:

(1) A proposition is a theorem of

lesser generality or of lesser
importance

(2) A lemma is a theorem whose

importance is mainly as a key
step in something deemed to be
of greater significance

(3) A corollary is a consequence of

a theorem, usually one whose
proof is much easier than that
of the theorem itself
The picture is called Ponzo illusion
(1911). There are two identical yellow
lines drawn horizontally in a railway
track. If you will be observing these two
yellow lines, your mind tells you that
the upper yellow line looks longer than
the below yellow line. But in reality,
the two lines have equal length. The
upper yellow line looks longer because of
the converging sides of a railway. The
 Proposition: if P then Q
Assume/Suppose P. ____.
______________________.
____________._________.
______.__________.
________. Therefore Q .

METHODS OF PROOF KINDS OF PROOF

In methods of proof, basically we need or (1)Direct proof is a mathematical

we have to prove an existing mathematical
theorem to be able to determine if this
theorem is true or false.
In addition, there is no need to prove
any mathematical definition simple
because we assumed that this is already
true or this is basically true.
Usually, a theorem is in the form of an
if-then statement. So, in a certain
theorem, it consists of hypothesis and
conclusion.
argument that uses rules of inference to
derive the conclusion from the premises.
In a direct proof, let us say we need to
prove a given theorem in a form of P→Q.
The steps in making a direct proof would
be:
1. Assume P is true.
2. Conclusion is true.

Let us say P and Q are two propositions.

In an if-then statement, proposition P
would be the hypothesis while the
proposition Q would be our conclusion
denoted by P→Q.

Example:

If a triangle is a right triangle with

sides a, b, and c as hypotenuse, then a 2 +
b2 = c2

TWO WAYS ON HOW TO PRESENT THE PROOF

1. Outline Form

Proposition: if P then Q
(1) Suppose/Assumes P
(2) Statement (2)Indirect Proof or contrapositive proof
(3) Statement is a type of proof which a statement to
. be proved is assumed false and if the
. assumption leads to an impossibility,
. Statement then the statement assumed false has
Therefore Q . proved to be true.

2. Paragraph Form Recall that the proposition p → q is a

conditional statement. This proposition
is logically equivalent to ~q → ~p. now,
the expression ~q → ~p is the
contrapositive form of the statement p →
q.
In an indirect proof, let us say we need
to prove a given theorem in a form of P→
Q. The steps or outline in taking an
indirect proof would be:
Assume/Suppose ~Q is true.
.
. There is a special name for an example
. that disproves a statement. It is called
Therefore ~P is true.
(3)Proof by Counterexample
A conjecture may be described as a
statement that we hope is a theorem. As
we know, many theorems (hence many
conjectures) are universally qualified
statements. Thus it seems reasonable to
begin our discussion by investigating how
to disprove a universally quantified
statement such as:
∀ x ∈ S, P (x)
To disprove this statement, we must prove
its negation. Its negation is:
( ∀ x ∈ S, P (x)) = ∃ x ∈ S, ~P (x)
Things are even simpler if we want to
disprove a conditional statement P(x) →
Q(x). This statement asserts that for
every x that makes P(x) true, Q(x) will
also be true. The statement can only be
false if there is an x that makes P(x)
true and Q(x) false. This leads to our
next outline disproof.
The question is “How to disprove P(x) →
Q(x)”?
- the answer is simple. Produce an
example of an x that makes P(x) true and
Q(x) false.
In both of the previous outlines, the
statement is disproved simple by
exhibiting an example that shows the
statement is not always true.
a counterexample.
(4)Proof by Contradiction
Another method of proving is what we
called “Proving by Contradiction”. This
methods works by assuming your
implication is not true, then deriving a
contradiction.
Recall that if p is false then p → q is
always true, thus the only way our
implication can be false is if p is true
and q is false.
So, if we let p → q be a theorem, a
proof by contradiction is given by this
way:
1. Assume p is true.
2. Suppose that ~q is also true.
3. Try to arrive at a contradiction.
4. Therefore q is true.
So, in practice then, we assume our
premise is true but our conclusion is
false and use these assumptions to derive
a contradiction.
This contradiction may be a violation of
a law or a previously established result.
Having derived the contradiction you can
then conclude that your assumption (that
p → q is false) was false and so the
implication is true.

Be careful with this method: make sure

that the contradiction arises because of
your original assumptions, not because of
a mistake in method. Also, if you end up
proving ~p then you could have used proof
by contraposition.