Textbook Practice Ch2.

#3, 6, 10, 11, 15, 16, 24, 29, 45

PHY 211 Chapter 2 Notes: Motion in One Direction
We start by studying the motion of objects in one direction (one dimension).
Initially, we will look at objects as “point-sized” objects, so we don’t need to
consider shape, size and other things that will complicate it. So, our first object to
model is a point-sized object called a particle.

2.1 Position, Velocity and Speed

A particle’s position, is where it is located with respect to some reference point.
We can conveniently call the reference point “0” if we want (since it is our
reference system, we call it what we want). In one dimension, there is only a
positive and negative direction for the particle to go.
------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|-----
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
If the position of the particle changes over time, then we need to have a way of
measuring its position at different times. NOTE that the magnitude of the
distance is ALWAYS positive, the direction may be positive or negative. The
position can be indicated by a Table (tabular), Line Diagram (pictorial) or a Time-
Position Graph (graphical).

Position Time Marker Position vs. Time Line Diagram

-4 1 A A B D C
-2 2 B -+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-
3 3 C -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1 4 D
Ultimately, the goal is to construct a mathematical representation to be able to
analyze the data.
The particle position with respect to the reference point (I like to use 0) is its
displacement. The displacement is specifically how far away from the reference
point (0) is the particle (the straight-line length between the reference point and
the particle). In one dimension, this is just a length with a + or – to indicate
direction. In more than one dimension (another chapter), the positional
separation including the specific direction is the displacement. This means that
displacement includes both magnitude (length) and direction, so it is a vector
(which we will learn about later).
Distance is different than displacement. Distance is the length of the actual
path the particle has traveled. Distance includes only the magnitude of the length
traveled, not the direction (since it can travel any given directions on its path). So,
distance is a scalar (magnitude only) property, and displacement is a vector
property.
For example, if a car travels west from home 3 miles to the store, and then goes
north 4 miles to the bank, and then returns home from the bank (5 miles), the
distance traveled is 12 miles, but the displacement is 0 miles (starts at home and
ends up at home, which is the reference point).
So, the displacement of a particle that starts at xi and ends up at xf, is:
∆x = xf - xi Where ∆ is defined as “change in”

Now that we are familiar with position, displacement and distance, we can learn
about speed and velocity (and average speed and average velocity).
Speed is the distance traveled in a specific amount of time. For example, 50m/s is
a speed. For speed, the direction is not specified, it can be north, west, up, at 45
degree incline, etc. So speed, is a scalar property. Velocity is the distance
traveled in a specific amount of time in a given direction. So, 50m/s West is a
velocity. So velocity, is a vector property. Note that both speed and velocity have
a magnitude measured in dimensions of Length/Time (L/T).
2.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
There are two types of speed and velocity that we measure: average and
instantaneous. Average means the speed over the distance or velocity over the
displacement as if constant, and instantaneous means the speed or velocity right
at a specific instant in time. For example average speed might be 55mph for 3
miles distance, and instantaneous speed might be 60mph at 5:06PM.
Average velocity is a measure of the particle displacement (∆x) divided by the
amount of time the displacement occurred (∆t), so the average velocity is:
vx,avg = ∆x/∆t
Note that since velocity is a vector, it can be + or -, depending upon the xi and xf
positions.
Average speed is a measure of the particle distance traveled (d) divided by the
amount of time the travel occurred (∆t), so the average speed is:
savg = d/∆t (Note the book denotes the average speed as vavg)

For the Instantaneous velocity, this is a measure of the slope of the graph of
position vs. time at a specific point in time. This is where calculus come in to play.
If your graph of the particle position vs. time (where position, x, is the vertical
axis, and time, t, is the horizontal axis), the slope of two points that intersect the
graph is the secant slope (since a secant line “cuts” the curve) and is:
Slope = m = ∆x/∆t = (x2 – x1)/(t2 – t1)
But as the points t2 and t1 become infinitesimally close to each other, so that t2-t1
approaches 0, the limit of ∆x/∆t as t2 – t1 = ∆t  0 is defined as the derivative of x
with respect to t, or dx/dt.
So in calculus limit definition terminology, the instantaneous velocity or speed at
a specific time is:
vx = lim ∆x/∆t = dx/dt
∆t  0
Example 2.3 (in the book)
If a particle moves in one direction (along the x-axis) with its position vs. time as
follows:
x(t) = -4t + 2t2, where x is in meters and t is in seconds.
(A) Determine the displacement for the two time intervals t=0 to t=1s, and
t=1s to t=3s.
Displacement is: ∆x = xf – xi
For t=0 to t=1,
∆x = x(t=1) – x(t=0)
= [-4(1) + 2(1)2] – [-4(0) + 2(0)2] = [-4 + 2] – [0 + 0] = -2m
For t=1 to t=3,
∆x = x(t=3) – x(t=1)
= [-4(3) + 2(3)2] – [-4(1) + 2(1)2] = [-12 + 18] – [-4 + 2] = 6 - -2 = 8m

(B) Find the average velocity during these two time intervals.
For t=0 to t=1,
vavg = ∆x / ∆t = (xf – xi)/(tf –ti) = (-2m – 0m)/(1s – 0s) = -2m/s

For t=1 to t=3,

vavg = ∆x / ∆t = (xf – xi)/(tf –ti) = (6m – -2m)/(3s – 1s) = 8m/2s = 4m/s

(C) Find the instantaneous velocity at t=2.5s

The book uses the graphical method of showing the slope line at t=2.5s,
and since the line intersects the points (1.5, -4) and (3.8, 10), the slope at
t=2.5 is:
(x2 – x1)/(t2 – t1) = (10 - -4)/(3.8 – 1.5) = 14/2.3 = 6.1m/s
Another way to do it is with the definition of instantaneous velocity:
vx = lim ∆x / ∆t evaluated at the point t=2.5s
∆t 0
Method 1: Evaluate the limit definition directly:
vx = lim ∆x / ∆t = lim [x(t + ∆t) – x(t)] /[(t + ∆t) – (t)]
∆t 0 ∆t 0
= lim [-4(t + ∆t) + 2(t + ∆t)2] – [-4t + 2t2] / [(t + ∆t) – (t)]
∆t 0
= lim [-4t – 4∆t + 2t2 +4t∆t + 2∆t2] – [-4t + 2t2] / [(t + ∆t) – (t)]
∆t 0
= lim [-4t – 4∆t + 2t2 +4t∆t + 2∆t2 + 4t – 2t2] / [(t + ∆t) – (t)]
∆t 0
= lim [-4t – 4∆t + 2t2 +4t∆t + 2∆t2 + 4t – 2t2] / [∆t]
∆t 0
= lim [-4∆t +4t∆t + 2∆t2] / [∆t]
∆t 0
= lim [-4∆t/∆t +4t∆t/∆t + 2∆t2/∆t]
∆t 0
= lim [-4 +4t + 2∆t] = -4 + 4t evaluated at t=2.5s
∆t 0
= -4 + 4(2.5) = -4 + 10 = 6m/s

Method 2: Evaluate the derivative dx/dt at t=2.5s

x = -4t + 2t2
dx/dt = -4 + 4t
dx/dt at t=2.5s = -4 + 4(2.5) = -4 + 10 = 6m/s
Clearly, directly evaluating the derivative is easier than the limit!
2.3 Particle Under Constant Velocity
For a particle under a constant velocity, this means that the initial velocity and
final velocity are the same, a constant.
Since vx = ∆x/∆t,
then ∆x = vx∆t
and this means that xf – xi = vx∆t
which can also be expressed as xf = xi + vx∆t
or, more generally, if the initial time is t=0, as
x(t) = x(0) + vx∆t = x(0) + vx(t – 0) = x(0) + vxt
so we have x(t) = x(0) + vxt
which we can still show as
x f = x i + vx t
Example: If a basketball rolls off the court, and when it leaves the court (t=0) it
is rolling at a constant velocity (in a straight line) north. 8.0 seconds later the ball
has gone 30.0 meters. (a) What is the basketball’s velocity? (b) how far will it
have gone in 2.0x10 seconds (20 seconds with 2 s.f.)?
(a) Using the equation x(t) = x(0) + vxt, you can solve for vx:
vx = [x(t) – x(0)]/t = [30.0m – 0m]/8.0s = 30.0m/8.0s = 3.75m/s = 3.8m/s
(b) x(2.0x10) = x(0) + (3.75)(2.0x10) = 0 + 75m = 75m

For a particle under constant speed, this is a similar equation, with the
displacement in position changed to distance traveled.
So, s = d/∆t, where s = constant.
Good example from the book is a particle traveling in a circle of radius 10.0m. If
the speed, s, is 5.00m/s, then the time it takes for the particle to travel once
around the circle is:
∆t = d/s = 2πr/s = (2)(3.14159)(10.0m)/(5.00m/s) = 12.6 seconds
2.4 Acceleration
Acceleration is the change of velocity over time. When you are traveling at a
constant velocity, there is no change in velocity, therefore no acceleration. When
you “speed up” or “slow down”, you are increasing or decreasing your velocity
during a given interval of time, and therefore accelerating. So acceleration can be
positive (increasing velocity or negative (decreasing velocity). Just like velocity is
a vector, so is acceleration. Acceleration is a change in a velocity speed or
direction, or both. Initially, we focus in motion in one direction, so acceleration
then is just a change in the speed component of the velocity.
As with velocity, acceleration can be average or instantaneous. Average
acceleration is defined as:
ax,avg = ∆vx/∆t = (vxf – vxi)/(tf – ti)
Note that velocity is in dimensions of L/T, and SI units of m/s
Acceleration is in dimensions of L/T2, and SI units of m/s2
Although the acceleration units are pronounced “meters per seconds squared”,
you can also think of acceleration as “meters per second per second” so that it is
clear that acceleration is the change of velocity (meters per second) per second.
Instantaneous acceleration, is defined similarly as instantaneous velocity, except
instantaneous acceleration is dvx/dt and instantaneous velocity is dx/dt.
So, instantaneous acceleration is:
ax = lim ∆vx/∆t = dvx/dt
∆t  0
and as mentioned earlier, instantaneous velocity is:
vx = lim ∆x/∆t = dx/dt
∆t  0

So, substituting the definition of instantaneous velocity into the instantaneous

acceleration equation, we get:
 ax = dvx/dt = d(vx)/dt = d/dt (dx/dt) = d2x/dt2

Or, in other words,

Instantaneous velocity is the first derivative of x with respect to time and
Instantaneous acceleration is the second derivative of x with respect to
time.

Example (Symbolic): If x(t) = mt2 + nt + p, where m, n and p are constants,

What is the v(t) and a(t), if the units are meters and seconds?
x(t) = mt2 + nt + p,
so, v(t) is the first derivative of x(t) with respect to t, or
v(t) = d/dt (x(t)) = d/dt (mt2 + nt + p) = (2mt + n) m/s
a(t) = d2/dt2 (x(t)) = d/dt(v(t)) = d/dt(2mt + n) = 2m m/s2
NOTE that the acceleration, a(t) = a constant, so a(t) does not depend on
time.
What are the units of the constants m, n and p?
x(t) == [L] == m[T2] + n[T] + p,
so the units of m are [L/T2] (hint: divide both sides by T2)
and the units of n are [L/T] (hint: divide both sided by T)
and the units of p are [L]

2.5 Motion Diagrams

Sometimes the difference between velocity and acceleration can be confusing.
Remember, that acceleration is always a change in the velocity with respect to
time, either magnitude, direction or both magnitude and direction. Motion
diagrams can help illustrate the difference in a constant velocity and a constant
acceleration.
Constant Velocity: v -> -> -> -> -> -> ->
o o o o o o o
a

Constant acceleration v -> --> ---> ---->

In direction of velocity: o o o o
a -> -> -> ->

Constant acceleration v ----> ---> --> ->

In opposite direction o o o o
of velocity: a <- <- <- <-

2.6 Particle Under Constant Acceleration

A particle can accelerate in general at a time varying rate, which can be fairly
complex to analyze. We start with a simpler case, in which the acceleration is
constant throughout time, so that the average acceleration is the same as the
instantaneous acceleration, since the acceleration is always constant.
We earlier had the equation for the average acceleration as:
ax,ave = ∆v/∆t = (vxf –vxi)/(tf – ti)
and if we assign the initial time, ti =0, then
ax,ave = (vxf –vxi)/t
Similar to the x(t) under constant velocity, the velocity under constant
acceleration can be expressed as:
vxf = vxi + axt (2.13)
Where the final velocity is expressed by the initial velocity, acceleration and time.
Also, since the average velocity, vx,ave , can be expressed as the mathematical
average of the initial and final velocities when ax is constant, vxi and vxf as:
vx,ave = (vxi + vxf)/2 (2.14)
These equations allow us to derive the general equation for x that includes
velocity and acceleration:
xf = xi + vit + ½ at2
Here’s how:
Remembering that:
xf – xi = vx,avet
Substituting the expression for vx,ave above, we get:
xf – xi = [(vxi + vxf)/2] t (2.15a)
And since vxf = vxi + at from above, we can substitute this expression and get:
xf – xi = [(vxi + vxi + at)/2] t
= [(2vxi + at)/2] t
= [2vxi/2 + at/2] t
xf – xi = vxit + ½ at2
And then adding xi to both sides, we get:
xf = xi + vit + ½ at2 (2.16)
Earlier, we showed the final velocity as an expression of initial velocity,
acceleration and time. If we want to eliminate time in the expression, we can
solve equation 2.13 for t:
vxf = vxi + axt
vxf – vxi = axt
(vxf – vxi)/ax = t (2.13a)

And then substitute this expression of t into 2.15a:

xf –xi = [(vxi + vxf)/2](vxf – vxi)/ax
xf – xi = (vxf2 – vxi2)/2ax
Now to solve for vxf2:
2ax(xf – xi) = (vxf2 – vxi2)
vxi2 + 2ax(xf – xi) = vxf2
or switching sides:
vxf2 = vxi2 + 2ax(xf – xi) (2.17)

Example: If John on roller skates is initially going 5.0m/s west and is initially at a
position 1.0m west of the skating rink wall, and then is subjected to a constant
acceleration of 2.0m/s2,
a) How fast is John going after 6.0s?
vf = vi + at = 5.0m/s + (2.0m/s2)(6.0s) = 5.0m/s + 12m/s = 17m/s

b) X Where is John at 6.0s?

xf = xi + vit + ½ at2 = 1.0m + (5.0m/s)(6.0s) + ½ (2.0m/s2)(6.0s)2 = 67 m west

2.7 Freely Falling Objects

We have developed the equations for objects under constant acceleration.
Objects, due to the force of gravity between the object and Earth, fall at a
constant acceleration towards the center of the Earth. The acceleration due to
gravity, is -9.80m/s2, which we also denote as g. Sometimes, for simple estimates,
we use g = -10m/s2. Unless specified as -10m/s2, in this class assume g =
-9.80m/s2.
So, this means that the vertical equation of motion of an object above the Earth
is:
xf = xi + vit + ½ gt2 = xi + vit + ½ (-9.80m/s2)t2
We can calculate some interesting results of objects freely moving in the air
(neglect air drag).
Example: If Mary is on the roof of her house (10.0 meters up), and throws an
object up at an initial velocity of 40.0m/s, and assuming g = -10.0m/s 2,
(a) How much time does it take for the object to reach the peak of its
trajectory?
Using vf = vi + gt, solving for t:
t = (vf – vi)/g = (0m/s -40.0m/s)/-10.0 m/s2
= -40.0/-10.0 = 4.00s

(b) What is the height that the object will reach before starting to fall back
down?
Using xf = xi + v it + ½ gt2
xf = 10.0m + 40.0m/s(4.00s) + ½ (-10.0m/s2)(4.00s)2
= 10.0m + 160.0m - 80.0m
= 90.0m

(c) How long will it take for the object to hit the ground?
To hit the ground, xf = 0.0m. We have the quadratic equation:
½ gt2 + vit + (xi – xf) = 0
-5.00t2 + 40.0t + 10.0 = 0
Which can be simplified to:
t2 – 8.00t – 2.00 = 0
(-b +/- sqrt(b2 – 4ac))/2a
(8.00 +/- sqrt(64.0 + 8.00))/2 = (8.00 +/- 8.4852)/2 = 8.24s

(d) What will the final velocity be when it hits the ground?
vf = vi + gt = 40.0m/s + (-10.0m/s2)(8.24s) = 40.0m/s – 82.4m/s = - 42.4m/s
2.8 Kinematic Equations Derived from Calculus
The kinematic equations starts from the equation for the change in position (xf –
xi) with a constant velocity vx,ave:
vx,ave = ∆x/∆t
If we have a graph of the instantaneous velocity vs. time, we can divide the
overall time from ti to tf into equal intervals, ∆t:

In each of these ∆t intervals, which for interval n we will call ∆tn, the
instantaneous velocity may range from vxi to vxf and the average velocity in the
interval n, is vxn,avg = (vxi + vxf)/2.
The AREA for each of these intervals, is (vxn,ave)( ∆tn) which is equal to ∆xn.
So, the total displacement, ∆x, is equal to the sum of all of the ∆xn:
∆x = ∑ ∆xn = ∑ vxn,avg ∆tn
This is the key relationship which from this sum, the integral of the instantaneous
velocity over the time tf –ti (which is ∆t) is derived:
tf

∆x = Lim ∑ ∆xn = Lim ∑ vxn,avg ∆tn = ∫ vx ( t ) dt

ti

n->∞ ∆t-> 0

So, if vx = constant, then this integral evaluates to:

tf

∆x = ∫ vx ( t ) dt = vx (tf – ti) = vxt

ti
Otherwise, if vx is NOT a constant, then since we know that ax = dvx/dt
Then, dvx = axdt, so we have the integral equations:
tf t

∫ dv = vf – v i = ∫ adt
ti 0

For the special case with a = constant, then

vxf – vxi = axt

With vx = dx/dt,
We can rewrite it as: dx = vxdt
t

Integrating both sides we get: xf – xi = ∫ vdt

o

Since v = vf = vi + axt, we can substitute this into the integral:

t

xf – x i = ∫ (vi+ at)dt = vit + ½ at2

o

which can also be written as the earlier equation 2.16:

xf = xi + vit + ½ at2