Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Enhancing the optical and thermal efficiency of a parabolic trough collector T

– A review
G.K. Manikandana, S. Iniyanb, , Ranko Goicc
⁎

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSM College of Engineering, Komarapalayam 638183, India
b
Institute for Energy Studies, Anna University, Chennai, India
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, University of Split, Split, Croatia

HIGHLIGHTS

• Various techniques used to enhance the optical efficiency of a solar parabolic trough collector are reviewed.
• Various techniques to enhance the thermal efficiency of a solar PTC are presented.
• Research investigations to increase the performance of the collector have been summarized.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Among the various available renewable energy sources such as wind, geothermal, tidal, bio mass, etc., har-
Inserts nessing of solar energy has become quite popular in most of the countries. Different collectors have been
Secondary reflector modeled, designed, fabricated and tested to operate in different range of temperatures such as low temperature
Cavity receiver collectors (flat plate 30–80 °C, evacuated tube 50–200 °C & compound parabolic collector 60–240 °C), medium
Parabolic through collector
temperature collectors (linear Fresnel reflector 60–250 °C, Cylindrical trough 60–300 °C, parabolic trough
Heat transfer enhancement
60–400 °C) and high temperature collectors (parabolic dish reflector 100–1500 °C, heliostat field collector
Nano fluids
150–2000 °C). In applications such as delivery of process heat and steam generation, the parabolic trough col-
lector is found to be most popular one among the other collectors. Numerous research investigations both
theoretical and experimental have been carried out for nearly more than three decades to enhance the optical
and thermal efficiency of the system. The optical efficiency depends on the property of the materials such as
reflectance of mirror, transmittance of glass cover, absorptance -emittance of receiver, intercept factor, geometry
factor and angle of incidence. The properties of the reflecting, absorbing and transmitting surfaces are greater
than 95% and the emissivity has also reached values as low as 0.02. A few research works on end losses have
been carried out too. The thermal efficiency depends on overall loss coefficient which includes conduction,
convection and radiation losses. Convection and radiation losses have been minimized by the use of metal glass
evacuated tubes and selective surface coatings on the receiver. Conduction losses persist and depend on the
material of structure. Investigations reveal that failure of vacuum, hydrogen accumulation in receiver and
breakage of tubes at end of the receiver are quite a few problems that result in heat loss. A narrow gap alone
exists in the enhancement of the property of materials except for a huge prospect lies in minimizing the de-
gradation of coatings and its properties at high temperature. Thus a huge opportunity for further investigation
lies in the heat transfer enhancement of receiver tube, development of a low cost and highly rigid structure, less
expensive and more accurate tracking mechanism. Numerous numerical and/or experimental investigations of
the performance of a novel cavity absorber to determine thermal or optical efficiency and/or pumping loss while
replacing the conventional tubular receiver in a parabolic trough, linear Fresnel and parabolic dish collector
have been performed. Investigations using passive methods to enhance the rate of heat transfer in heat ex-
changer domain have been carried out and hence a similar practice has been tried out in the receiver of PTC
where some of the inserts used in heat exchanger have been tried out in the receiver tube of the PTC too. A
review of such works have been presented in this paper along with the review of the other works carried out in

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: iniyan777@hotmail.com (S. Iniyan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.11.048
Received 3 August 2018; Received in revised form 8 November 2018; Accepted 13 November 2018
Available online 27 November 2018
0306-2619/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.K. Manikandan et al.
the enhancement of optical and thermal efficiency of the solar PTC. Lastly the delivery of process heat and steam
generation has been discussed along with the economic analysis of the PTC followed by the future research
prospects in a parabolic trough collector and economic assessment models.
1. Introduction
Parabolic trough collector is one of the most prominent and pro-
mising technologies utilized to convert the solar irradiation into useful
process heat [1] or steam generation for electricity production through
a Rankine cycle [2]. The trough consists of a highly polished glass or
aluminum surface with a reflectivity of 95% or 88.5% respectively
[3,4]. The radiation incident on the mirror surface is reflected to the
absorber tube placed at the focal axis of the trough as shown in Fig. 1.
The receiver made of aluminum or stainless steel [5,6] is coated with a
selective surface in order to enhance the absorptivity and minimize the
emissivity. Several research investigations on coatings have been per-
formed and have accomplished the thermal radiation properties of the
receiver greater than 95% [7]. A single module is designed based on the
aperture area and length of mirror. A series of such modules are aligned
together to form a huge collector. The number of rows on solar field
depends on the availability of non-shadow area, the energy requirement
and torque handling capacity of the tracking mechanism. A pump or
blower circulates the Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF) through the hot re-
ceiver. The HTF either water, thermic fluid, molten salt or gas circu-
lated through the receiver, absorb the thermal energy from the tube and
reach temperatures as high as 400 °C depending on the application [5].
The tube is encapsulated either by an evacuated or non-evacuated glass
jacket to minimize convection and radiation losses. Selective surface
coatings on glass jacket have increased the transmissivity greater than
95% [6]. A tracking mechanism either hydraulic or mechanical system
along with sensors is employed to track the sun continuously by oper-
ating in a closed loop circuit to minimize the cosine losses [8]. Four
modes of tracking are possible. The tracking of collector in east-west
direction by aligning the trough in north-south axis will yield maximum
energy in summer than winter and the vice-versa happens when a
collector is aligned in the E-W axis and tracked in N-S direction [9]. The
absorber tube is held by intermediate supports from the PTC torque
tube to prevent deflection of the tubes due to mass of fluid, wind load
and self-weight. The primary reflecting surface either the mirror or
aluminum sheet is supported and held by a structure made of mild steel
or aluminum [10]. The entire mirror support structures and receiver
holder are mounted on the torque tube. The overall efficiency of the
collector depends on the optical and thermal efficiency of the system.
Many efforts have been taken in different prospects by various in-
vestigators to enhance the overall efficiency of the system.
2. General parameters affecting the performance of parabolic
trough collector
2.1. Location of the solar field
The geographical location of the installed parabolic trough collector
affects the performance of the collector. Countries lying on the equator
and closer to tropic of Cancer, Capricorn receive more direct beam
radiation than that of the ones located away from the equator. The
longitudinal and transverse incident angles of the solar insolation affect
the performance of the collector too. Unlike dual axis tracking the
single axis tracking does not nullify the incident angle effects and thus a
loss of performance is always envisaged. Many authors have in-
vestigated the feasibility of the technology in their countries at different
locations. Reddy et al., have carried out the viability analysis of stand-
alone PTC plants in Indian conditions [11]. Tzivanidis et al., have
studied the possibility of solar cooling in Athens climate [12]. Ouagued
et al., have investigated the potential of hydrogen production in
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Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540
Algerian climatic condition using parabolic trough collector [13].
2.2. Rim angle and its effect
The angle between the centerline and rim of the collector is known
as rim angle. When the rim angle is changed, the focus to aperture ratio,
which defines the parabola curvature, too changes. A larger rim angle
(900) reduces the mean focal to reflector distance. Thus the effect of
slope and tracking errors are less pronounced on the beam spread. A
smaller rim angle reduces the collector surface area, and increases the
focal to reflector distance. This leads to a sacrifice in optical efficiency
of the collector due to a wider image spread. Thus an optimal rim angle
is necessary for a satisfactory performance of the collector. Reddy et al.,
have suggested an optimum rim angle of 650 for the PTC to be designed
for a power plant for Indian conditions [11]. Standard curved mirrors
have fixed rim angles whereas aluminum reflectors available as plain
sheets need to be fabricated as per the design requirement.
2.3. Wind load, structural stability and tracking
The distortion of the parabolic structure due to wind load will de-
crease the optical efficiency of the system. Now a day the glass mirrors
are designed to withstand a maximum wind load of 37 m/s. A heavy
rigid structure would perform better but result in higher initial cost and
longer payback period of the installed system. A less rigid structure will
lower the cost but distortion errors might be higher. Many investigators
have tried different shapes of torque tube such as cylindrical hollow
tube, box type structures [10,14]. Fu et al. have simulated the wind
structure interaction and optimized their new model. They have re-
duced the collector weight about 5.8% in comparison with the previous
model [15]. Tracking accuracy is another parameter which determines
the performance of the collector. A good tracking mechanism can have
the tracking errors ranging from - 4 mrad to 4 mrad. When the incident
angle increases the tracking error is more pronounced on the receiver
tube flux distribution [16].
3. Overall efficiency
The overall efficiency of the system depends on the optical, thermal
efficiencies and the losses from the collector. Many research works have
been carried out by different authors across the globe to enhance the
collector efficiency and reduce the losses.
Fig. 1. Schematic of PTC with tube receiver.
 Table 1
Recent work carried on absorber selective coatings.
G.K. Manikandan et al.

Sl. No Author Coatings Method Findings Ref.

1 Usmani et al.-2016
2 Jiang et al. -2016
3 Shiva Prasad et al. -
2016
4 Valleti et al. - 2016
5 Prikhodko et al. - 2016
6 Liu et al. – 2016
7 Lu et al. – 2016
8 Subasri et al. – 2016
9 Gao et al.- 2016
ZrOx/ZrC–ZrN/Zr on stainless steel (SS) and copper (Cu) substrates DC/RF Magnetron Sputtering α ∼ 0.88 and 0.85 [117]
ɛ27˚C ∼ 0.04 and 0.1
High temperature stability at 700 °C and 600 °C in vacuum
Titanium nitride (TiN) thin film, nano cavity array structure and Al2O3 Has high melting point, Optical property of the TiN material varies [118]
coating a little with the temperature increase
Nanoporous Cr-Fe-Mn composite oxides/ZrO2-SiO2 sol-gel on an Controlled Chemical Oxidation α: 94.9% [119]
austenitic stainless steel (SS-202) ɛ300 ˚C: 0.122
Thermal stability maximum up to 300 °C in an open air
atmosphere
SS/Cr/TiAlCrN-G/TiAlN/AlSiN/AlSiO Cathodic Arc Physical Vapor Deposition Absorptivity of 0.96 [120]
Emissivity of 0.09
Good thermal stability in terms of optical properties retained up to
600 °C
Carbonized rice husk Absorption Efficiency (85.08%) [121]
AlCrOx thin films on silicon and quartz substrates Cathodic Arc Ion Plating Absorptance and thermal emittance of the stack is 0.927 and 0.094 [122]
Stress buffer layer Cr2O3, An infrared reflective layer Ag, A diffusion Plasma Enhanced Magnetron Sputtering (PEMS) and Absorptance of 0.82–0.59 and 0.61–0.35 in the wavelength range [123]
barrier layer Cr2O3, Asilicon-based absorbing layer An anti-reflection High Temperature Chemical Vapor Deposition of 0.3–0.7 μm and 0.3–2.5 μm respectively. Thermal stability is up
layer SiO2 (HTCVD) to 500 °C only
Ag-TiO2 as the cermet layer, titania and silica as the dielectric layers Dip Coating Absorptance: 94 ± 1 [124]
Emissivity: 0.13
TiC/Al2O3 on stainless steel substrate Magnetron Sputtering Absorptance: 0.92 [125]
Emittance: 0.13

1526
10 Heras et al. – 2017 AlyTi1-y(OxN1-x) layers with different oxygen content Cathodic Vacuum Arc α = 94.0% [126]
εRT = 4.8%
11 Bellas et al.– 2017 Cu nanoparticles in a low index dielectric matrix, e.g. SiO2 _ Total conversion efficiency: 52% [127]
12 Charpentier et al.– HfC/TaSi2 α/ɛ > 1, up to 1600 K [128]
2017
13 Rodríguez-Palomo Inconel/MoSi2-Si3N4/Si3N4/Al2O3 Magnetron Sputtering Performance Criterion (PC) parameter evaluated after successive [129]
et al. - 2017 air annealing cycles of 100 h at 600 °C for the structure was less
than 0.01
14 Jain et al.– 2017 Multiscale, fractal textured solar selective coating Electrodeposition Process Fractal texturing of the surface provides a nearlythree-fold [130]
performance
15 Dias et al. – 2017 W/AlSiOx:W(HA)/AlSiOx:W(LA)/AlSiOx on stainless steel substrates Magnetron Sputtering Absorptance: 94–95.5% [131]
Emissivity: 8–9% (@ 100 °C) & 10–14% (@ 400 °C)
16 Soum-Glaudea et al.- TiAlNx/TiAlNyand an Al2O3 antireflective coating on stainless steel Magnetron Sputtering Absorptance:0.93 [132]
2017 Emittance: 0.22 at 550 °C
17 Gao et al. - 2017 ZrC-ZrOx/Al2O3 on stainless steel Magnetron Sputtering Absorptance: 0.92 [133]
Emittance: 0.12.
18 Usmani et al. – 2017 Zirconium(Zr) film on stainless steel and glass DC Magnetron Sputtering 0.12 and 0.14 emittance values for Zr film coatings on stainless [134]
steel and glass substrates respectively
19 Yang et al. - 2017 Double-selective-coated _ Reduce heat loss by 157.8 W/m or percentage of heat Loss [135]
reduction is 31.1%.
Increase in the collecting efficiency from 64.7% to 68.1%.
20 Okuhara et al. - 2017 SiO2/β-FeSi2 + SiO2 composites/SiO2 barrier/Mo base Magnetron Sputtering Achieved high conversion efficiencies of over 72.3% at high [136]
temperatures below 700 °C
21 Shiva Prasad et al.- Mn-Cu-Co-Ox-ZrO2/MgF2 on an austenitic stainless steel (SS-304) α/ε = 0.97/0.17 @500 °C [137]
2017 substrate
22 Gao et al. -2017 TiC-WC/Al2O3 on stainless steel (SS) substrate Magnetron Sputtering High solar absorptance of 0.92 and a low thermal emittance of [138]
0.11
Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540
G.K. Manikandan et al.
3.1. Enhancement of optical efficiency of the trough
3.1.1. Coating of selective surface on receiver tube
The optical efficiency is the ratio of the energy absorbed by the
receiver to the energy incident on the aperture of the collector. It de-
pends on the optical properties of the materials, the geometry of the
collector and the various imperfections arising from the construction of
collector [17]. Numerous works have been carried out in enhancing the
absorptive and minimizing emissive properties of the selective surface.
The synthesis of selective coatings is much more tedious than that of
anti-reflective and protective coatings for mirrors, glass and aluminum
sheets because the absorptance and emittance are surface properties
which are strongly dependent on temperature and wave length and
affected by micro structure too [18–20]. The coatings developed need
to be chemically and structurally stable at operating temperatures,
durable and ideal for a longer period of time, environmental friendly,
safe to handle and quite inexpensive. Selective coatings have been
classified as intrinsic, semiconductor-metal, multi-layer, cermet’s or
metal dielectric composite material and textured surfaces [21–23]. The
investigation on selective surface has started long back from 1970 and
still continuous. It is observed from the extensive review on selective
surface coating by vapor deposition method carried out [20] that
among the various materials investigated for mid-temperature range,
coating of Ni-NiO on Al yielded the maximum absorptivity of 0.96,
(ε100°C = 0.10), and coating of graphite on Cu, Ni, Ti and Ag resulted in
a minimum emissivity of 0.01–0.02, (α = 0.71–0.80). It is obvious that
a lot of scope of improvement of the emissivity property of the selective
surface still persists [24]. The data and properties of compounds for
selected transition metal elements, coatings having semiconducting
properties and textured surfaces have been summarized. A good im-
provement in the emissivity and the absorptivity is found for the metal
vanadium with α = 0.96 and ε = 0.02 [25], have reviewed the selec-
tive experimental studies on solar selective coatings between the year
2000–2014 [26], have focused their attention on the main ageing me-
chanisms of various solar absorber coatings such as ageing induced by
diffusion, oxidization, change in ingredients change, change in grain
size and micro defects [27], have described the concept of surface
plasma polaritons (SPPs). In their detailed review of different solar
absorber coatings, emphasis on dielectric- metal- dielectric has been
laid. The DMD absorbers can be used for metals like Cr, Zr, Mo, Al, Pt,
Ni and dielectrics Cr2O3, MgO, Al2O3, MgF2, HfO2 [7] stated that
Pyromark coating is the one that has commercially demonstrated
higher cost effectiveness. Table 1 summarizes the recent work carried
on absorber selective coatings that have been investigated within last
2 years.
3.1.2. Coating of anti-reflective surface on glass tube
For many years the anti-reflection coating has been used in optical
industries to improve the quality of image and reduce the glare of the
glass. In solar applications the concentric borosilicate glass tube around
the absorber should have a good transmissivity property. The coating of
selective surface on the glass has improved the transmissivity from
around 92% to 96% [6]. The modeling of anti-reflection coatings and
principles of operation have been reviewed and explained by McCleod
and Hecht [28,29]. The borosilicate glass with refractive index of 1.47
is coated with a lower RI coating such as MgF2 which results in an index
of 1.37. The processes for developing anti-reflective coatings have al-
most been saturated and the properties are close to optimal. The au-
thors designed and prepared novel multifunctional (MF) coatings that
present anti-reflection (AR) and self-cleaning (SC) capacity. The net
solar transmittance obtained was 95.9% and a marked enhancement of
self-cleaning capacity of the coatings was observed [30]. A new method
to adjust refractive index of nano-porous silica films is reported. A
broadband antireflective coating with average reflectance 1.5% in the
solar energy spectrum has been obtained [31]. In this study, the base-
catalyzed sol was modified by acid-catalyzed polysiloxane and nano-
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Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540
TiO2. The maximum transmittance of the antireflective solar glass with
single layer coating is about 95.02% at 565 nm wavelength, which is
about 3.36% higher than the substrate glass [32]. A base/acid two-step
catalytic sol-gel process is investigated to control the structure of nano-
porous silica films effectively. Experimental results show that the re-
fractive index of the films can be adjusted from 1.18 to 1.4, rapidly and
continuously [33]. Three methods were surveyed to produce the anti-
reflective effect on glass by introducing a certain degree of porosity.
The results show that the AM1.5 solar transmittance increases from
0.915 to 0.970 for Triton-doped silica [34]. Silica films were prepared
by sol-gel process and later an expression for coating thickness was
developed. Discrepancies between theory and experiment at low speeds
and large thickness were observed and explained on the basis of slip
stick behavior in the coating apparatus [35]. Two methods for pre-
paring gels in the silicate systems are described; gelling colloidal silica
sol and polymerization of alxoysilane. The principles of gelling process
are discussed in terms of various parameters [36]. The author reviewed
recent studies that address the underlying physics and chemistry of sol-
gel thin formation by dip coating [37]. In this work the effect of mi-
crostructure of the deposited film on varying the precursor structure,
solvent composition or deposition conditions is described [38]. Silica
coating on glass sides were prepared, thickness of liquid film deposited
were calculated. A modified empirical method was derived to fit the
experimental thickness of heat treated layer. The thickness measure-
ment revealed that films deposited in higher alcohol content environ-
ment exhibited smaller thickness values [39]. A review has been carried
out on the techniques of preparing oxide glasses from metal alcoholates
through hydrolosis, gelling and heating at low temperatures [40]. Silica
films were fabricated by dip-coating onto silicon and glass substrates
and the film properties such as thickness, stability, water-precursor
ratio, sol aging time were monitored followed by interpretation of film
behavior [41]. The advantages and disadvantages of sol – gel process
have been discussed in this paper [42]. Thus the transmittance values
and the sol – gel coating methods have been briefly reviewed.
3.1.3. Reflectivity of the mirror
The reflective surfaces are coated with silver followed by copper
and a few layers of paint to enhance the durability of the highly po-
lished mirror surface of reflectivity 94.5% and aluminum reflective
sheets of reflectivity 88%. Commercial suppliers of curved glass with
4 mm thickness are RIOGlass [3], AGC Solar Mirror [43] and 1 mm
thickness RONDAGlass [44]. The mirrors are indented to be used for
mid and high temperature range. Highly polished aluminum reflectors
of 0.3 mm and 0.4 mm thickness are commercially available for the low
temperature range AlMIRA [4], ALMECO [45]. The optical efficiency of
the Ronda mirror is observed to be as close as 99.5%.
3.1.4. Intercept factor of the absorber tube
The intercept factor is the ratio of the energy intercepted by the
receiver tube to the energy reflected by the highly polished mirror or
aluminum reflector sheet. It depends on many factors such as size of the
receiver, surface errors of the reflecting surface and the solar beam
spread. The optical errors can be classified as random and systematic
errors [46]. If the flux distribution around the absorber is known, the
intercept factor can be quite easily determined. Several investigators
have carried out numerical analysis of flux distribution around the re-
ceiver [47,48]. A. Fernandez–Garcia et al. [49] have presented an
overview on different commercial collectors. The first ever PTC dates
back to 1870 with an aperture area of 3.25 m2, driven by a 373-watt
engine built by a Swedish engineer John Ericsson in United States. He
experimented with different fluids from water to air. From there on-
wards, development of commercial collector started in response to the
oil crises that happened in 70’s. The authors have presented the de-
velopment of various collectors and few notable among them are Luz
collector. The Israeli– American Company designed and erected three
PTC’s namely LS-1, LS-2 and LS-3. The characteristics of these troughs
G.K. Manikandan et al. Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540

Table 2 in thermal efficiency related to the benchmark design ranging from

Main characteristics of the Luz PTCs [49]. 0.8% for seagull shaped secondary reflector to 1.6% for a aplanatic
Model LS-1 LS-2 LS-3 mirror. Even though aplanatic mirrors gave the best performance, even
a simple reflective glass surface could yield an increase in thermal ef-
Year 1984 1985 1988 1989 ficiency of 1.0% [50].
Max. Operating temp. (°C) 307 349 390 390
Aperture area (m2) 128 235.5 235.5 570.2
Aperture width (m) 2.55 5 5 5.76
Length (m) 50.2 47.1 47.1 99 3.1.6. End losses and dual axis tracking
Focal length (m) 0.68 1.40 1.40 1.71 The optical efficiency is dictated by the geometric factor of the
Mean focus distance (m) 0.94 1.84 1.84 2.12 collector, which is the decrease in the aperture area due to abnormal
Absorber tube diameter (mm) 40.0 70.0 70.0 70.0
incidence effects, blockages, shadows and loss of radiation beyond the
Cover tube diameter (mm) – 0.115 0.115 0.115
Rim angle (°) 85 80 80 80
end of receiver. Radiation falling on the edge of the concentrator op-
Acceptance angle (°) 1.918 1.59 1.59 1.37 posite to the sun cannot reach the absorber tube and this is called the
Geometric concentration ratio 18.95 22.74 22.74 26.2 end effect. Attempts to prevent the concentrated radiation falling away
Peak optical efficiency 0.734 0.74 0.74 0.77 by placing an opaque plate on either side of the trough have failed due
Reflectance 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
to the fall of shadow which in a way reduces the aperture area. Ming li
Intercept factor 0.87 0.89 0.89 0.93
Transmittance 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 et al., have studied the end loss effect of parabolic trough collectors and
Absorptance 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.96 suggested the methods to reduce the losses by extending the absorber
Emittance (at temp. (°C)) 0.30 0.24 0.24 0.15 (350) tube, setting an end plane mirror, etc. The experimental investigation
(300) (300) (300)
has proven that the suggested compensation methods are feasible and
effective. A collector oriented in north – south direction and located in
and around the equator, the end loss is smaller for the whole year in
are given in Table 2. The intercept factor has drastically improved from
comparison to the east-west oriented one [51]. Xu et al., have per-
0.87 in LS-1 to 0.93 in LS-3. A rigid structure with minimal surface
formed an optical analysis on the end loss effect and an end plane
optical errors can have the intercept factor greater than 0.93.
mirror is suggested to increase the thermal efficiency. With increase in
trough length, the end loss effect is gradually decreased. It is observed
3.1.5. Incorporating secondary reflector that yearly optical efficiency almost varies linearly with the latitude
The primary concentrator either a mirror or aluminum polished [52].
surface reflects the incident radiation on to the receiver. The radiation As discussed earlier the mode of tracking and its accuracy dictates
flux intercepted by the receiver depends on factors such as rim angle of the optical efficiency of the trough collector. A tracking mechanism is
the collector, surface errors of the primary concentrator, tracking ac- employed to track the sun throughout the day to minimize the long-
curacy of the mechanism and rigidity of the structure to withstand wind itudinal and transverse incident angle losses. Four different modes of
and self-load. Spillage or scattering of highly concentrated radiation tracking namely tilted N-S axis, polar N-S axis with E-W tracking,
around the receiver will lead to a great loss of optical and thus thermal horizontal E-W axis with N-S tracking and horizontal N-S axis with E-W
efficiency. Many works to capture the spillage of radiation have been tracking. A parabolic trough collector employs a single axis tracking
carried out by positioning the secondary reflector in the close vicinity of mechanism. A loss in the optical efficiency occurs due to the long-
receiver. A detailed review on different shapes of secondary reflector itudinal cosine effects. Efforts to increase the optical efficiency by
and their effect on the concentration ratio and efficiency are in Table 3. zeroing down the cosine losses have been taken by many researchers.
The investigation of several designs have resulted in the improvement George C, Bakos investigated the performance of the collector by

Table 3
Different shapes of secondary reflector and their effect on the concentration ratio and efficiency.
Sl.No Author Shape Model Findings Ref

1 Collares-Pereira et al. - Compound poarabolic Concentration factor increased 2–2.5 than conventional design. [139]
1991

2 Spirkl et al. - 1997 Involute with flat mirror Secondary concentrators reach 77% of the theoretical upper limit for a [140]
pill box solar distribution (reflectivity of 0.9 and transmission efficiency
90%

3. Canavarroet al. - 2013 XX Simultaneous Multiple Geometric concentration = 49.29 [141]

Surface (SMS) Optical efficiency at perpendicular direction = 0.67

4. Rodriguez-Sanchez et al. second-stage flat mirror Efficiency increases close to 80% in the concentration ratio. [142]
- 2015 The absorbers radii are reduced by around 50%, which reduces heat loss
from the absorber.

5 Wirz et al. -2014 Aplanatic Mirrors Several secondary mirror designs are evaluated [50]
Improvements in thermal efficiency relative to 1.6% for the aplanatic
mirror.
Best performance is observed by aplanatic mirrors than others.

1528

Table 4
Recent works carried out to enhance heat transfer using nano fluids.
S. No. Author/Year
1 Ho and Pan – 2016
2 Menbari et al. – 2016
3 Mwesigye et al. – 2016
4 Toghyani et al. – 2016
5 Gómez-Villarejo et al. – 2017
1529
6 Subramani et al. – 2017
7 Potenza et al. -2017
8 Kasaeian et al. – 2017
9 Bortolato et al.- 2017
10 Manikandan et al. – 2017
11 Mwesigye et al.- 2017
12 Abid et al. – 2017
13 Mwesigye et al.- 2018
14 Bellos et al. – 2018
G.K. Manikandan et al.
Nano Material/Fluid Findings Ref.
Al2O3/molten Nano-HITEC fluid The concentration of 0.25 wt% exhibited a maximum enhancement of the mean Nusselt number up to 11.6%, but only for [143]
30 min.
The concentration of 0.063 wt% exhibited an enhancement in the Nusselt number up to 9.2%. Precipitation phenomena was not
observed within one hour.
γ-Al2O3&CuO/distilled water and a mixture of EG and The thermal efficiency of two dissimilar nanoparticles dispersed in water is greater than its counterpart dispersed in a Water-EG [144]
Water mixture
Ethylene Glycol seems to be more appropriate for use in a wide temperature range since the Water-EG mixture has higher
freezing and boiling temperatures compared to water
Cu/TherminolVP-1 The thermal efficiency of the system increases by about 12.5% as the nanoparticle volume fraction in the base fluid increases [145]
from 0% to 6%.
CuO, SiO2, TiO2 and Al2O3/Therminol- 55 The overall energy and exergy efficiencies are higher for CuO/oil nano fluid when compared with other nano-fluids. [146]
Ag/Diphenyl oxide and biphenyl maximum Increased of 6% heat transfer coefficient when compared with the base fluid [147]
TiO2/DI-H2O The maximum overall efficiency of TiO2 nanofluid is 57%, which is 9% greater than that of the base fluid [148]
CuO Nano-powder/air Mean efficiency obtained was about 65% [149]
MWCNT/ethylene glycol (EG) and Nano silica/EG The thermal efficiency of 0.3% for carbon nano tube/EG has the highest value and it is averagely 17% higher than the base fluid [150]
SWCHNs/water For the first two hours of exposure to concentrated solar radiation, the receiver thermal efficiency did not vary significantly and [151]
later reached to 87%.
After that a continuous decrease in the efficiency of the direct absorption receiver was found down to 69% after 8 h of exposure.
encapsulated paraffin wax and sand/propylene glycol- The hybrid nanofluid containing 1 wt% paraffin wax and 1 vol% sand nanoparticles resulted in 9.6% enhancement in thermal [152]
water mixture conductivity and 18% reduction in viscosity.
Copper/Therminol VP-1, silver/Therminol VP-1 and Al2O3/ Thermal efficiency was shown to increase by 13.9%, 12.5% and 7.2% for silver-Therminol VP-1, copper-Therminol VP-1 and [153]
Therminol VP-1 Al2O3-Therminol VP-1, respectively when the concentration ratio is 113
Al2O3 and Fe2O3/LiCl-RbCl and NaNO3-KNO3 It is observed that both Al2O3 and Fe2O3 based nanofluids have better overall performance and generate higher net power as [154]
compared to the molten salts
SWCNTs/Therminol VP-1 The heat transfer performance increased up to 234%, the increase in thermal efficiency was around 4.4% as the volume fraction [155]
increased from 0 to 2.5% and the corresponding reduction in the entropy generation was about 70%.
CuO/Syltherm 800 (thermal oil) and in nitrate molten salt The use of oil-based nanofluid and molten salt-based nanofluid resulted in thermal efficiency enhancement up to 0.76% and [156]
0.26% respectively
Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540
G.K. Manikandan et al.
tracking the sun continuously by dual axis mode. He noticed a sig-
nificant increase in thermal efficiency of the system. [53]. Qu et al.,
have designed a prototype parabolic trough collector with rotatable and
N-S axis tracking. In autumn the daily average energy collected is 7.25
higher than the conventional N-S axis tracking [54]. In another similar
work carried out by the authors the daily average efficiency of a
parabolic trough increases by 5% in winter while using the rotatable
axis tracking. Jie Sun et al., numerically investigated the double axis
PTC and proposed an optimized tracking strategy [55].
3.2. Enhancement of thermal efficiency of the trough
It is the ratio of energy incident on the absorber to the energy
carried away by the working fluid excluding conduction, convection
and radiation losses. An effort to minimize heat loss by convection is
successful by the utilization of an evacuated receiver tube. Selective
surface coatings on the receiver have minimized the radiation losses by
reducing the emissivity property of the surface [20]. Numerous re-
search investigations on enhancing the thermal efficiency of receiver
have been attempted apart from the efforts to minimize the losses [56].
The investigation of enhancement of heat transfer in heat exchangers
has been widely carried out and similar investigations of heat transfer
coefficient and pressure drop have been performed on the receiver tube
of a parabolic trough collector by many authors.
3.2.1. Nano fluids as HTF
Base fluids are added with nano sized additives to enhance the
thermo physical heat transfer properties of the fluid. The addition of the
particles increases the heat transfer co-efficient, the thermal con-
ductivity of the fluid and decreases the thermal boundary layer thick-
ness thereby increasing the thermal efficiency of the system. Extensive
research using nano fluids such asFe3O4/H2O, TiO2/H2O, CuO/H2O,
SiO2/Therminol VP-1, Al2O3/Synthetic oil and (CuO + Ni)/N2 have
been carried out [57]. The increase in volumetric concentration ratio of
the nano particles beyond certain value exhibits poor thermal char-
acteristics due to accumulation of nano particles as lump. This method
is quite expensive when compared to the enhancement of heat transfer
using inserts. Recent works carried out to enhance heat transfer using
nano fluids are presented in Table 4.
3.2.2. Cavity receivers
An attempt to augment the optical as well as thermal efficiency of
the parabolic trough collector has been meticulously carried out by
numerous researchers. The conventional receiver tube is replaced by a
cavity absorber through which the HTF passes through and collects the
maximum possible thermal energy. This cavity absorber has been
widely tested for its performance in dish concentrators too. A lot of
research works on performance of cavity receiver have been in-
vestigated by many authors. The effect of pumping power has also been
investigated by a few researchers. A detailed literature survey is en-
umerated in the following section. An annular cylindrical tube sur-
rounded by insulation was investigated for heat transfer performance.
The results show that the absorber without vacuum enclosure and se-
lective surface coating performed better. The efficiency was recorded as
90% at an outlet temperature of 130 °C and 76% at higher temperature
[58]. A black body receiver with an annulus was experimentally ana-
lyzed in a 50 m2 trough and the results were utilized to develop a
mathematical model to simulate the plant performance under a given
condition. An optimum flow rate was established to compromise the
increase in pumping power [59]. A rectangular shaped cavity with
square cross section was simulated for seven different wall configura-
tions such as two walls heated and one insulated, two insulated and one
heated and all walls heated. Correlations were developed to determine
Nusselt number. The Nusselt number was found to decrease with in-
crease in cavity tilt angle [60]. A 2D numerical model was developed
and validated with experimental reaction rates for a cylindrical cavity
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Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540
having a tubular receiver tested in a high flux solar simulator. The solar
to thermal conversion efficiency in the reactor was 28.55% [61]. A
black body cavity receiver with four configurations namely circle,
semicircle, square and triangle have been simulated for optical effi-
ciencies and thermal performance. The triangular cavity receiver has
the highest optical performance and the conversion efficiency was more
than 67%. The thermal losses were as low as 20 W and 41 W at an inlet
temperature range of 90–150 °C and were found to considerably reduce
in the presence of glass cover. Lastly the Semicircular cavity receiver
performance on investigation was found to be not as good as evacuated
tube receiver [62]. An eccentric circular tube receiver of PTC was nu-
merically analyzed for heat flux, temperature distribution and thermal
stress. The Von-mises stress reduces by 41% and the stress reduction is
found to decrease in the orientation of 00 and 900 [63]. Next a cy-
lindrical cavity with a black painted tubular receiver and a secondary
concentrator with two asymmetrical CPC’s and 42 m long prototype
solar receiver installed on a 9 m aperture were numerically and ex-
perimentally investigated. In summer solstice at noon the efficiency
determined was 45% and 29% respectively at 120 °C and between
240 °C and 450 °C. Nearly 1/3rd of incident solar radiation was lost by
spillage at the aperture. The convection losses in the receiver and in-
sulation were 9.7–9.9% and 5.6–9.1% respectively. The radiation losses
through aperture are 6.1–17.6%. The pumping power of HTF accounts
for 0.6–24.4% of the power generated. [64]. In another work a V-Cavity
absorber with rectangular fins were theoretically and experimentally
examined. The triangular shaped cavity with fins exhibits a higher
optical efficiency. The fins reduce the surface temperature from
136.2 °C to 121.5 °C and the outlet temperature increases from 109.8 °C
to 110.9 °C [65]. Three types of cavity receiver namely secondary re-
flecting cavity, two- plus M type cavity (2+-M) and three-Plus M-type
cavity (3+-M) were investigated for absorptivity and optical losses. The
absorptivity is found to increase for specular reflection and deeper
cavity receiver. The optical losses are less than conventional receiver
[66]. A linear cavity absorber examined theoretically and experimen-
tally exhibited a good thermal performance especially with the fins and
glass cover at medium temperature range [67]. A triangular cavity re-
ceiver was analyzed for optical properties and optimized. The optical
efficiency obtained was 89.23% for an aperture width of 70 mm, width
to depth ratio 0.8:1.0 and offset distance of 15 mm respectively [68]. A
Smooth, V-corrugated tube wall, Single-glazed and double glazed
aperture windows are the four different configurations that were ex-
perimentally analyzed in a very large span parabolic trough collector of
9 m net aperture width. The collector’s optical efficiency was 69.7%
and 64.7% for single and double glazed windows respectively. At solar
noon in summer solstice the collector efficiency was 60–65% and
37–42% for a HTF temperature of 125 °C and 500 °C respectively. At an
incidence angle of 180 as calculated for the equinox at 8 am solar time
the collector efficiency was between 58% to 62% and 24% to 31% for
HTF temperature of 125 °C and 500 °C respectively. The effect of cor-
rugation of the cavity receiver on increase of collector efficiency gra-
dually diminishes at mass flow rate greater than 5 Kg s−1. Single glazed
window receiver exhibits an increase of collector efficiency at low
temperature (below 300 °C) and double glazed window at high tem-
perature (above 400 °C) respectively. 30% of radiation loss in the col-
lector is optical loss. Finally, the pumping power determined for 200 m
long collector row operated at fluid temperature of 300–500 °C was
11–17 kW. [69]. Another author developed a mathematical model to
verify the performance of a receiver in the range of 100–120 °C placed
inside the heat transfer fluid in a twin glass tube. The performance of
non-selective absorber coating (Black Paint with α = 0.96, ε = 0.78)
was shown to be same with the selective absorber coating (α = 0.96,
ε = 0.14 @ 350 °C) [70]. A study on cavity receiver with a central tube
and two inclined fins was carried out. A numerical model with the aid
of the test data was developed. The collector efficiency of
34.18–48.57% was obtained for an inlet temperature range of
80.6–160.5 °C and mass flow rate of 0.17–0.181 kg/s. The collector
G.K. Manikandan et al.
could obtain an efficiency of 64.25% which is comparable to the
evacuated tube [71]. In another work a movable cover to reduce the
heat loss and overheating protection of the cavity absorber for PTC was
proposed. A 3 dimensional model was developed and validated. Three
tests were conducted under similar conditions with protection for
overheating by rotating the reflector and turning of the movable cover.
Both the methods were found to be effective except for the turning off
the movable cover which required the stopping of the reflector mo-
mentarily form rotating and re-tracking the sun later on. The heat loss
reduction varies from 6.36% to 13.55% and hence it was suggested to
turn off the movable cover in case of very low solar radiation [72].
3.2.3. Inserts
Heat transfer enhancement techniques are classified as active, pas-
sive and compound methods [73]. In the active method either of the
following techniques are adopted to enhance the heat transfer
● Vibrating the heat transfer surface,
● Rotating the surface,
● Creating a pulse on fluid surface,
● Applying electrical or magnetic field across the heat exchanger,
● Injecting a fluid in the bulk fluid flow-single phase,
● Removal of vapor-two phase.
In passive method no additional energy is consumed unlike the
active method to enhance the heat transfer rate. In this method the
surface of the tube is either modified or inserts are placed inside the
tube to disturb the regular flow pattern (see Table 5).
3.2.3.1. Inserts for heat transfer enhancement in PTC. Numerous research
investigations of heat transfer enhancement, friction factor and
pressure drop incorporating passive inserts and/or modifying the
profile of receivers have been carried out in heat exchangers and the
results have been found encouraging. Similar investigations have been
performed in PTC receiver with various configurations of inserts and
receiver profiles.
3.2.3.1.1. Porous configuration. The porous configurations of inserts
have been numerically and/or experimentally investigated by various
authors. The configurations investigated are porous disc and porous
inserts of square, triangular, trapezoidal and circular geometries,
porous rings, porous media and perforated plate inserts. The porous
disc incorporated receiver was analyzed for different orientations,
angles, height and distance between discs and the findings showed
that the disc oriented at an angle of 300 exhibited better thermal
performance than the others [74,75]. Two conventional and four
receivers inserted with porous discs were experimentally analyzed.
The results revealed that the receivers with porous disc perform better
than the conventional ones [76]. Porous inserts of 4 different
geometries were investigated out of which the trapezium porous
inserts exhibited an enhanced performance [77]. The porous ring
inserts when investigated exhibited a good heat transfer performance
characteristics too [78] whereas the porous media had just a slight
increase in the heat transfer [79]. The perforated plates placed centrally
in the absorber tube serve to increase the thermal efficiency by 1.2–8%
for inserts of porosity 0.65 and flow rates lower than 0.01205 m3/s
[80]. The entropy generation method was used to obtain the optimal
configurations of these plates. With increasing plate size and decreasing
plate spacing the Reynolds number is found to decrease [81].
3.2.3.1.2. Twisted tapes. The inserts with the different geometries
have been investigated either numerically or experimentally such as
twisted tapes, twin counter/co twisted tapes, louvered twisted tape,
wavy type inserts and helical inserts. The performance of counter
twisted tape is found to be better than co twisted tape and in general the
heat transfer rates of both the inserts are 17.8–50% higher than single
twisted tape inserts [82]. The absorber with twisted tapes [83],
louvered twisted tape [84], helical inserts [85], wavy inserts [86] and
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Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540
absorber with molten salt along with twisted tapes [87] exhibit a better
performance than the plain tube.
3.2.3.1.3. Modified receiver profile. The circular receiver of the PTC
is replaced by internally finned tube, asymmetric outward convex
corrugated tube, dimpled tubes, dimple - converging – diverging
tubes and modified receiver with hinged blades and investigated
numerically or experimentally for the performance. The analysis of
internally finned tube showed that the plant efficiency increases [88]. A
similar type of insert was investigated with gaseous HTF such as CO2,
air and Helium in absorber of Euro trough ET -150. Helium was found
to produce optimal results amongst the other gases [89]. The same
author by varying the fin lengths in the absorber of LS- 2 PTC
investigated the performance and concluded that the absorber with
length of fin 10 mm and 2 mm thickness is the most favorable one
[90,91].The asymmetric outward convex corrugated tube had a
significant increase in heat transfer [92]. Dimpled tubes on
investigation reveal that deep dimples perform better than shallow
ones [93]. Dimpled -converging – diverging tubes were tested with HTF
such as water, thermic oil and nano fluids. An increase in thermal
efficiency of just 4.25% was observed for nano fluids where as it was
4.5% for the other fluids [94]. Experimental study on receiver with
hinged blades demonstrated an increase of thermal efficiency by 9%
more than conventional receiver [95]. Numerical analysis of heat
transfers in the trough receiver with and without helical fins,
protrusions and dimples shows that dimple tubes have better
performance than the other receivers [96].
3.2.3.1.4. Other configurations. The other inserts examined were
vortex generators, metal foam, pin fin and multi fin array. Thermal
loss of the novel receiver with vortex generator reduces by
1.35–12.10% than the plain absorber tube [67]. Investigation of
placing metal foams in the absorber tube has resulted in increase of
Nusselt number [97]. Analysis of solar air heater with half- pipe fin
arrangement resulted in increase in the efficiency by 14% compared to
plain tube arrangement [98]. Arranging pin fin arrays in a PTC receiver
increase the Nusselt number by 9% [99]
3.2.3.2. Similar inserts used in heat exchanger for heat transfer
enhancement. The technique of using passive inserts to enhance the
heat transfer coefficient of the fluid and thus the thermal efficiency of
the system were initially practiced in a heat exchanger exclusively a
shell and tube heat exchanger. Many researchers have tried different
inserts and a few of which are similar in shape have been investigated
in both the absorber tube and heat exchangers. Such types of similar
shapes of inserts are presented in Table 6.
3.2.3.3. Some of heat exchanger inserts which are not tried in PTC
absorber. Geometries of inserts which have so far been investigated in
a heat exchanger and never been tried in a parabolic trough receiver are
presented in Table 7. This table provides enormous opportunities for
researchers to carry out heat transfer and pressure drop investigation
using the same shapes.
4. Economic assessment and implementation of parabolic trough
collector
4.1. Economic assessment
Parabolic trough collector is one among the collector designs of
concentrated solar power technology. These are large installations used
to harness solar thermal energy, convert into electricity or process heat.
The HTF is Thermic oil operating in the range of 350–400 °C in a
Rankine to produce pressure steam that propel a turbine and a thus a
generator. The other prominent design for generating electricity is a
Heliostat central tower where HTF is molten salt used at high tem-
peratures. As a base load plant it is mandatory to distribute electricity
for the entire 24 h and as a peak load plant it is expected to deliver
G.K. Manikandan et al. Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540

Table 5
Inserts for heat transfer enhancement in PTC absorber:
S No. Author Insert type/ year Type of Study Boundary Model Receiver Findings Ref
condition Material/HTF

1 Reddy et. al. Porous disc - Numerical Uniform heat- Stainless 31,845 ≤ Re ≤ 254,765 [74]
2008 flux Steel/ Pr = 8.11
Therminol VP1 Nu no. = 192.62
Pressure drop = 457 Pa

2 Eiamsa-ard et al. Twin twisted Experimental Constant heat Copper/Water Re = 3700–21,000 [82]
tapes – 2009 flux Heat transfer rates around 59.4–187%
Friction factor = 6.37

3 Muñoz et al. Internal helically Numerical Uniform heat- Steel Improvement in the plant efficiency of the [88]
finned tube – flux parabolic trough solar plant
2011

4 Reddy et al. Porous disc – Numerical Uniform heat- Stainless 11,750 ≤ Re ≤ 23,450 [75]
2011 flux Steel/Water Pr = 7
Nu no. = 159.75
Pumping penalty of 0.014 W/m
Heat transfer enhancement = 13.5%
Stainless 11,750 ≤ Re ≤ 23,450
Steel/ Pr = 7
Therminol Oil Nu no. = 159.75
55 Pumping penalty of 0.074 W/m
Heat transfer enhancement = 31.4%
5 Cheng et al. Vortex generator Numerical Non uniform Syltherm 800 Re = 3.8 × 104 to 7.0 × 105 [157]
- 2012 solar energy flux Oil Thermal loss decreases by 0.11–13.39%

6 Wang et al. Metal foams - Numerical Non uniform Steel/Steam Re = 894,000, Pr = 1.4997 [97]
2012 solar energy flux Nu increases about 5–10 times
Increase of ƒ = 10–20 times

7 Kaspersk a et al. Internal multiple- Numerical Constant wall Aluminum/Air 14% improvement of the efficiency [98]
fin array - 2013 temp.

8 Zamzamian et al. Louvered Numerical Non-uniform Aisi304/ Re = 5000 [84]

twisted-tape - heat flux Aluminum Nu increases 150%
2014 Behran Friction factor increases 210%
Thermal Oil

9 Song et al. Helical screw- Numerical Non uniform Dowtherm-A Heat loss 6 times decreased [85]
tape inserts - solar energy flux Friction factor 23 times increased
2014

10 Mwesigye et al. Perforated plate – Numerical Non-uniform Stainless Steel 1.02 × 10^4 ≤ Re ≤ 7.38 × 10^5 [80]
2014 heat flux (321H)/ Nu increases about 8–133.5%
Syltherm 800 Friction factor increases 1.40–95 times

11 Reddy et al. Porous Fin - 2014 Numerical Uniform heat- Stainless 1.7 kPa of pressure penalty. [77]
flux Steel/ Enhanced the heat transfer 13.8%
Therminol VP1

12 Reddy et al. porous disc - Experimental Non uniform Stainless Steel Collector efficiencies 63.9%-66.66% [76]
2015 solar energy flux
(continued on next page)

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Table 5 (continued)

S No. Author Insert type/ year Type of Study Boundary Model Receiver Findings Ref
condition Material/HTF

13 Changa et al. Twisted tape - Numerical Non-uniform Nickel- 1.02 x10^4 ≤ Re ≤ 1.36x10^6 [87]
2015 heat flux Chromium Nu increases about 2.9 times
Alloy/Molten Friction factor increases 2.5 times
Salt

14 Mwesigye et al. Perforated plate – Numerical Non-uniform Stainless Steel Re = 1x10^4 to 2x10^4 [81]
2015 heat flux (321H)/ Heat transfer performance increases
Syltherm 800 between 1.02 and 2.34 times
Entropy generation reduced up to 53%

15 Huanga et al. Dimples, Numerical Non-uniform Stainless Re = 1x10^4 to 2x10^4 [96]

protrusions and heat flux Steel/ Nu increases 44% - 64%
helical fins - 2015 Therminol VP1 Friction factor increases 56% - 77%
16 Mwesigye et al. Wall-detached Numerical Non-uniform Stainless Re = 150 300 [158]
twisted tape- heat flux Steel/Syltherm Heat transfer performance of about 69%
2016 800 Friction factor increases range 1.6–14.5
Entropy generation reduced up to 58.8%.

17 Fuqiang et al. Asymmetric Numerical Top uniform heat Stainless Steel Re = 52518 [92]
outward convex flux Overall heat transfer performance factor is
corrugated tube - Bottom half 148%
2016 concentrated
solar irradiation

18 Huang et al. Dimple – 2016 Numerical Stainless Gr = 10^9–3.2 x10^10 [93]

Steel/ Nu increases 1.0 – 21%
Therminol VP1 Friction factor increases 1–34%

19 Jaramilloet al. Twisted tape - Numerical Copper/ [83]

2016 Aluminum
Strip
20 Bellos et al. Converging- Numerical Non-uniform Copper/ 4.55% mean efficiency [94]
diverging heat flux Thermal Oil
absorber tube -
2016

21 Kalidasan et al. Hinged Blades - Experimental Non-uniform Copper/ Thermal efficiency of 69.33% [95]
2016 heat flux Distilled Water

22 Bellos et al. Internally finned Numerical Uniform heat flux Stainless Helium performs better up to 290˚C, while [89]
absorbers - 2016 Steel/Helium carbon dioxide is the best choice in higher
Gas temperature levels

23 Xiangtao et al. Pin fin - 2017 Numerical Non uniform Stainless Re = 7063.2 [99]
solar energy flux Steel/D12 Nu increased up to 9.0%
Thermal Oil Overall heat transfer performance factor
increased up to12%
24 Bellos et al. Internally finned Numerical Uniform heat flux Stainless Re = 2300. flow is assumed to be turbulent [90]
absorbers - 2017 Steel/Syltherm Nu increased up to 1.652 times
800 Pressure drop increased up to 2 times
Thermal efficiency is 68.8%
Friction factor increases 2 times
25 Ghasemi et al. Porous Rings - Numerical Uniform heat- Stainless Re = 30000 [78]
2017 flux Steel/Syltherm Nu = 374.6358
800
(continued on next page)

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Table 5 (continued)

S No. Author Insert type/ year Type of Study Boundary Model Receiver Findings Ref
condition Material/HTF

26 Bellos et al. Internally finned Numerical Uniform heat flux Stainless Re = 2300. flow is assumed to be turbulent [91]
Absorbers - 2017 Steel/Syltherm Thermal efficiency 69.11%
800

27 Jamal-Abad et al. Porous media - Experimental Non-uniform Copper Tube/ Overall loss coefficient decreases by 45% [79]
2017 heat flux Water

28 Zhu et al. Wavy-tape - 2017 Numerical Non uniform Syltherm-800 Nusselt number is enhanced by 261–310%, [86]
solar energy flux The heat loss is reduced by 17.5–33.1%, ƒ is
increased by 382–405%.
30.2–81.8% decrease of total entropy
generation rate

Table 6
Inserts used in Heat exchanger for heat transfer enhancement:
S No. Author Insert type/year Type of Study Model Material/HTF Findings Ref

3 4
1 Chiu et al. Twisted-tape - 2009 Numerical & Air &Dowtherm Re = 7 × 10 –4.2 × 10 [159]
Experimental Pressure drop increased 150–370%
Heat transfer coefficient 13–61%

2 Eiamsa-ard Tight-fit twisted tapes - 2009 Numerical Mean heat transfer rates 73.6% [160]
et al. Pressure drop increased 330%
Loose-fit twisted tapes - 2009 Mean heat transfer rates 33.3%
Pressure drop increased 330%

3 Bhuiya et al. Helical tape - 2011 Experimental Brass/Air Re = 22,000 to 51,000 [161]
Varied from 2.75 to 4.5 times
Heat exchanger effectiveness
2.2–3.45
Friction factor increases 3.0 times
4 Bhuiya et al. Perforated twisted tape - Experimental Brass/Mild Steel Re = 7200–49,800 [162]
2013 Air Nu increased up to 340%
Thermal performance factor 59%
Friction factor increases 360%
5 Bhuiya et al. Twisted tape - 2014 Experimental Brass/Air Re = 6950–50,050. [163]
Heat transfer rate 60–240%
Friction factor increases 91–286%

6 Zheng et al. Discrete double inclined ribs - Numerical Water Re = 3390–20,340 [164]
2015 Heat transfer 1.8–3.6 times grater
Friction factor increases 2.1–5.6
times
7 Chamoli et al. Perforated disk - 2016 Experimental Galvanized Iron Re = 6500–23,000 [165]
Sheet/Air Nu increased up to 134.22
Thermal performance factor 1.23
Friction factor increases 0.14

8 Suri et al. Perforated twisted tape -2017 Experimental GI Pipe/Air Re = 5000–27,000 [166]
Nu increased up to 5.92 times
Friction factor increases 7.89 times
9 Xu et al. Internally four-head ribbed Numerical & Therminol 55 Heat transfer rate 1.05–1.35 times [167]
tube - 2017 Experimental Friction factor increases 1.3–1.5
times

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Table 7
Heat exchanger inserts which are not tried in PTC absorber:
Sl. No. Insert type Model Ref Sl. No. Insert type Model Ref

1 Butter fly inserts [168] 14 Combined rib with Delta- [169]

winglet

2 Left–right twisted Tapes [170] 15 Conical nozzles Combined [171]

With nail

3 Right and left helical Screw tape [172] 16 Conical-ring with twisted [173]
tape

4 Twisted tape consisting wire nails [174] 17 Perforated conical-rings [9]

5 Twisted tapes with alternate-axes and [175] 18 Tandem diamond-shaped [176]

triangular, rectangular and Trapezoidal Tabulator
wings
6 Serrated twisted tape at various Serration [177] 19 Louvered strip [178]
depth ratios

7 Converging diverging Conical ring [179] 20 Conical injector [180]

8 Non-uniform wire coil combined With [181] 21 Helically twisted tape [182]
twisted tape

9 Triangle cross Sectioned coiled wire [183] 22 Twisted rings [184]

10 Wire coil in pipe [185] 23 Circular-rings combined [186]

with a twisted tape

11 Propeller swirl generator [187] 24 Twisted wires brush [188]

12 Propeller swirl Generators [189] 25 Left and right twist Tape [190]
with rod and Spacer

13 Typical swirler [191] 26 V-nozzle turbulator [192]

during high demands. Both the operation of plants require a thermal
energy storage mechanism that can deliver the thermal energy during
non-sunshine and night hours. A feasibility assessment in terms of its
economics is mandatory before the commencement and operation of
the plant.
There are two methodologies that have been followed in the lit-
erature; (1) Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE); It is the ratio of the sum
of the cost over to the sum of the electrical energy production over the
expected life time of the plant. (2) Market based revenue (Net Present
Value – NPV, Rate of investment – ROI). The former method does not
capture time varying value of electricity [100], and thus undervalues
dynamic flexibility of storage relative to the market-based approaches.
The latter one considers time-varying meteorological and electricity
market conditions. To have a better understanding of the revenue op-
portunities and competitive advantages of CSP technologies relative to
other renewable energy sources, a more general assessment metho-
dology is required. Thus a fine gap for research and development of a
feasible and reliable assessment methodology exists.
4.2. Implementation
A feasible site for installation with lowest Levelized electricity cost
and high irradiance level is mandatory for implementation and eco-
nomic operation of a PTC plant [101]. The author in his study con-
cluded that if the Andasol- 1 CSP plant in Spain is shifted to Tataounia it
will have competitive electricity output [102]. In analyzing the

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G.K. Manikandan et al.
potential and cost effectiveness of a PTC for energy demand of garment
zone, the LCOE for offsite power plant is less than onsite [103]. An
analysis of cost of parabolic trough collector results that the collector
area depends on the availability of thermal storage [104]. The para-
meters considered for economic analysis includes the capital cost, tax
rate, fuel price and maintenance cost [105], plant capacity, capital in-
vestment, operating hours, CO2 emission trading system price, etc.,
[106] CO2 emission reduction [107], land cost, thermal storage [108].
In a study on economic impacts of installing solar power plants, it was
declared that the power plant will not bring net economic benefits for
the power sector unless the conditions on factors such as carbon bond
prices, labor rate or solar plant part price change [109].
In another study of economics and market potential of the solar
thermal power plants, it was stated that it is possible to reduce the
initial investment cost which relies on mainly four items: increase in
unit capacity, optimized plant configuration (combined cycle, cogen-
eration), mass production of components and technical advancement
[110]. In an economic analysis of a PTC integrated with Kalina cycle it
was realized that in order to lower LCOE; it is advisable to increase the
number of collectors per row rather than increasing the number of rows
[111]. The author carried out a detailed investigation of the technical
and economic feasibility of integrating a parabolic trough collector
system with gas turbine cogeneration system and found that it has more
economic feasibility than CO2 capturing technologies [112]. The tech-
nical and economic barriers for the development and deployment of
solar thermal technology have been discussed in the work. Technical
barriers identified are; Heat transfer fluid, thermal losses, immature
energy storage system, etc. and economic barriers are; High initial cost,
lengthy payback period and small revenue generation, backup heater
required in water heating system, etc. [113]. A memetic algorithm was
developed for thermo economic design optimization of parabolic trough
solar plants [114]. The author has surveyed the economic assessment of
CSP technologies and found two methods. In this review article a strong
variation in LCOE and revenue estimate is found in the literature [115].
A detailed overview of the current potential and future aspects of in-
volving solar industrial process heating systems in the industrial ap-
plications has been reviewed [116].
5. Conclusion
This work encapsulates all the techniques used to enhance the op-
tical and thermal efficiency of a parabolic trough collector. Research
investigations carried out to increase the performance of the collector
have been meticulously reviewed and presented. Implementation and
economic analysis of PTC has too been discussed. The outcome of this
review is summarized below.
5.1. Optical efficiency
The optical efficiency of parabolic trough collector mainly depends
on the following parameters.
Coating of selective surface on receiver tube:
Coatings have been developed with absorptivity & emissivity in the
range of 0.7–0.97 and 0.1–0.02 respectively.
Coating of anti-reflective surface on glass tube:
The available materials with a good transmissivity and refractive
index are 0.96 and 1.37 respectively.
Reflectivity of the mirror:
Aluminum reflective sheets and curved glass mirrors of reflectivity
in the range of 0.88–0.954 and 0.9–0.995 are commercially available in
market.
Intercept factor of the absorber tube:
This factor for commercially available structures has been drasti-
cally improved from 0.87 to 0.93.
Incorporating secondary reflector
Many secondary reflector shapes have been proposed and analyzed
1536
Applied Energy 235 (2019) 1524–1540
to enhance the optical efficiency. The aplanatic mirror is found to be
most favorable.
End losses and Dual axis tracking:
Investigations to reduce the end losses by extending the absorber
tube, setting an end plane mirror have proven that the methods are
feasible and effective. Dual axis tracking results in an increase of daily
average energy collected by 7.25% in autumn. The rotatable axis
tracking increases the efficiency by 5% in winter. This mode of tracking
is not feasible for very large systems.
Cavity Receiver:
Conventional tubular receiver was replaced by black body cavity
receiver to reduce the heat loss and enhance the optical & thermal ef-
ficiency. The optical efficiency achieved by a triangular cavity receiver
with fins was 89.23%. The parameters that dictate the optical efficiency
of the system have been meticulously researched and analyzed. These
parameters have reached values near to optimum (> 95%) and hence a
narrow range of scope is only available for further improvements.
Cavity receiver is a domain which still has prominent scope for further
investigations.
5.2. Thermal efficiency
Nano fluids as HTF:
An appreciable increase in thermal efficiency is noticed with the
only drawback is its cost when compared to the utilization of passive
inserts
Cavity Receivers:
A reasonable increase in thermal efficiency is observed and the in-
vestigations reveal that a proper configuration of the receiver could
perform better even in the absence of selective surface coating and
vacuum enclosure. One such work carried out is by placing the absorber
inside the HTF in a twin glass tube. The cavity receivers are less prone
to thermal distortion when compared to the circular tube receivers.
Inserts:
Passive inserts have been already widely investigated for their
performance in heat exchangers. Attempt to incorporate passive inserts
in absorber tube has resulted in fruitful results by few authors. The
configuration of those inserts that performed better in a heat exchanger
can be investigated in PTC receiver. Apart from inserts modification of
heat transfer surface like dimple protrusion, corrugated tube, con-
vergent divergent tubes, internal helically finned and internal finned
tubes have also been investigated for their heat transfer performance.
From the review of the research works carried out in enhancement
of thermal efficiency, the work of cavity receivers and passive inserts
are found to dominate the work of Nano fluids due to the cost involved.
Still a lot of scope exists in all the three domains for further work.
Implementation and economic analysis of PTC:
Two prominent methods for economic assessments of concentrated
solar power have been used by the researchers. The LCOE (Levelized
cost of electricity) method has been extensively used in majority of
assessments and a few studies consider time-varying meteorological
and electricity market conditions. LCOE compares a wide range of
electricity generation technologies, to design appropriate policies such
as government incentives without considering time-varying effects and
flexibility. Comparisons of LCOE estimates across multiple studies are
difficult because the assumptions used in LCOE differ significantly.
LCOE analysis neglects the time-varying value of electricity, and thus
significantly under values energy storage relative to the market-based
approaches. Some studies find that both LCOE and revenue can in fact
be conflicting metrics for certain designs and market conditions. Thus a
more general techno-economic assessment method should be for-
mulated to analyze and understand the competitive advantages of CSP
technologies relative to other renewable energy sources.
G.K. Manikandan et al.
6. Future prospects for research in PTC and economic assessment
models
The detailed literature review of parabolic trough collector has
given a deep insight on the research works carried out in enhancement
of optical and thermal efficiency. In the conclusion chapter a detailed
report on the effect of different parameters that affect the efficiency and
its further scope of improvements and prospect of future research work
have been highlighted. The forth coming section high lights the gap
available for future research work in the improvement of the perfor-
mance of PTC.
● Investigation of coatings to minimize the adhesion of dust particles
● Enhancement of the stability of selective surface coatings due to
thermal and environmental degradation
● Work on prevention of corrosion of reflectors and increase in the life
span of reflectivity property of mirrors
● Manufacture of light and low cost rigid parabolic structures using
composite or thermally non conducting materials
● Design of an indigenous and economical automated tracking system
● Synthesis and investigation of low cost, cheaper and high thermal
conductivity nanofluids
● Synthesis of gas Nano fluids and analysis of their feasibility through
performance study
● Investigation of cavity receivers particularly with absorbers without
selective surface coatings
● Inserts analyzed in heat exchangers can be investigated in absorber
tube
● Modification of receiver surface area and profile such as convergent
divergent tubes with dimples, internal finned tube with different fin
profiles etc., can be investigated for heat transfer performance.
● Investigation of multiple passive inserts in receiver tube
● Investigation of an optimal combination of nanofluids and inserts
● Performance investigation of cavity receivers with nano HTF
● Performance investigation of cavity receivers with inserts
6.1. Future prospects in economic assessment of concentrated solar power
technologies
The literature review of economic assessment of CSP reveals that
two methods are distinctly used by researchers. The Levelized cost of
electricity and market based revenue (Net present value - NPV, Rate of
investment – ROI). Some studies find that both LCOE and revenue can
in fact be conflicting metrics for certain designs and market conditions.
Many researchers have found strong variations in LCOE and revenue
estimates in the literature. Thus it is imperative to have a more general
techno-economic assessment method to over the draw backs in the
above methods. Thus the future scope for research is highlighted below
● A reliable model for assessment analysis which takes into account
the draw backs of LCOE and market based revenue methods
● A detailed and reliable model to capture the flexibility of CSP sys-
tems and accurately estimate their revenue potential from markets.
● Optimization of methods for design of operational policy
● Optimization of design and operation of CSP systems
● Effect of uncertainty of assumptions on assessment results
● Impact of uncertainty on market revenues and techno economic
analysis of CSP systems
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