Running head: Immigration with Child Trauma 1

Immigration within Child Trauma

Alma Tavares

Loras College
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 2

Abstract

Trauma is an important topic that too many human beings are affected by. Regardless of age,

gender, or race, children are the most affected by traumatic experience. Different problems that

are happening around the world are happening in a large scale, some of the problems that are on-

going can affect someone for a part of their life or forever. Trauma can happen from various life

events but one of the most traumatic someone can experience is immigrants who leave their

country for a better life. When immigrants decide to leave their country, they have to deal with

trauma regardless of where they come from or where they go. The trauma that happens during

this time is from the journey and when they establish their own lives again. When comparing

adults and children, there is a large gap between the two based on different factors such as

mental health and more. The trauma comes from many different factors but can affect a children

different than an adult. A child does not necessarily understand what is happening at the moment

but will later see the injustice of a something they endured. The following information will be

looking specifically at Latino/a families who are greatly affected by their own journeys.
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 3

Child and Adult Trauma

Trauma is identified to be a stressful experience that people particularly go through in life

and effects their everyday life. Trauma is shown in different ways and is shown differently

between children versus adults. When looking at mistreatments that are done towards families,

the effects throughout the years don’t change or improve. Those mistreatments have caused

trauma and mental illnesses into the life of adolescences, adults, and especially in children.

Looking at what I have reviewed from some articles, there is research that talks about the effects

of different traumatic events. There is a difference in the effects of a child who was born in the

United States compared to a child that immigrates to the United States. These affects don’t just

stay with them as children but grow into their adulthood.

This topic is important to research because the immigrant community isn’t represented in

the conversations when speaking about the Latinx community. It is something that is

underrepresented especially when speaking about a families’ journey. Talking about the topic

and bringing awareness to the problems that aren’t just a part of history but being lived by many

today, is an opportunity to bring the awareness that is needed. There has to be conversations that

speak about the unfair treatment towards children that later lead to adulthood. Some of the

conversations could revolve around mental health disorders, the journey that someone endures

when coming, the sacrifices that are needed to be done, etc. In my own life, I come from a family

that immigrated here for a better life then what they had in Mexico. But I never thought to realize

the journey that they had to go through in order for me to be in the place that I am. With

conversations, we should be open to speaking about ways that we can help those who come. It is

important, not only for those suffering from this change in their life but for the future that they
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 4

will live. In order to do that, there are different treatments that can be done for children that are

in need of it.

The problem of immigration trauma is that young children who are going through it, live

through different scenarios. So no one’s story is the same. This life changing choice/event is a

type of trauma has a prediction of causing mental illness such as post-traumatic stress disorder

and depression. In a study conducted by multiple psychologist called “Immigration Trauma

Among Hispanic Youth: Missed by Trauma Assessments and Predictive of Depression and

PTSD Symptoms”, they wanted to see the effects of immigration. In order to do that they had a

table with different categories of what could have caused the trauma. There was an interview

with 131 children being younger than 18 years old. The exposure of the event during

immigration bring (n = 39; 29. 8%). With that, it showed that (n=28, 87.5%) reported the process

of immigration itself was traumatic but had no indication of experiencing their event in the

assessment. Children are being affected by these events that are predictive of PTSD and

Depression symptoms. Being that few quantitative studies were done to examine the exposure to

their traumatic events during immigration. (de Arellano, Andrews. Reid-Quiñones, Vasquez,

Doherty, et al, 2018).

From the reading “Immigrant Trauma and Mental Health Outcomes Among Latino

Youth”, it showed that two-thirds of youth have experienced at least one traumatic event, 44%

went through experienced one traumatic event, and 23% experienced two or more traumatic

events during migration. The youth that was put through this experiment were from the ages 12-

17 years old. When testing these traumatic events that are among Latinx children and testing

their mental status of the child. These events specifically happen though pre-migration, during

migration, and post-migration. (Cleary, Snead, Dietz-Chavez, Rivera, and Edberg,2018). In

Immigration life events with Child Trauma 5

general, the trauma is coming from the lifestyle that a child or anyone was living, even if they

were in a different country. Not only are the children that immigrate living traumatic experiences

but also be children that have parents as immigrants as well. Another study called, “Trauma

Exposure, Mental Health, and Service Utilization Rates Among Immigrant and United States-

Born Hispanic Youth: Results from the Hispanic Family Study”, was meant to examine all of

these factors and the youth. It examined this relationship in a convenience sample of 131 foreign-

born (64.5%) and 72 U.S.-born (35.5%) Hispanic youth, ages 8–17 years. That is interviewing

them and the caregiver and from that, it is seen that there is no significant difference than with

kids who are immigrants. (Bridges, de Arellano, Rheingold, Danielson, and Silcott,2018). Going

into differences of trauma and with the different types of people in the reading “Racial/ethnic

differences in trauma exposure and mental

El Salvador youth is another example of trauma that children go through by the events

that happen specifically in the country. When comparing the situation of immigrant children to

the events happening in El Salvador, there is one concept that is the same and that is the

traumatic aftermath. There have been studies behind of parents reasoning as to why they want to

leave their own countries. As the reading of the traumatic children has been the one to be part of

data on the reasons to cause of the traumatic events which have come to show that that 51.9%

witnessing a lot of things like the community violence that goes on during the immigration

process and even in the present. (de Arellano, Andrews, Reid-Quinones, Vasquez, and Doherty,

2018). As the case of the children in El Salvador reports are given, they are from the point of

view of parents. The number of traumatic events that they had to go through show five specific

criteria’s that include: having PTSD being re-experiencing (21.7%), avoidance (13.2%), negative

altercations in cognition or the mood (11.2%), hyperarousal (26.3%), and being the present
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 6

symptoms (23%). The amount of children that show all full criteria is at 3.9%. (Johnco, Salloum,

McBride, Cepeda, and Guttfreund, et al,2019). With the many comparisons of children, there are

also different types of situations and events that occur that cause trauma but the effects are

different. They show that no matter where the child is at, there is trauma. It doesn’t matter

whether it is in the U.S. or in a different country like El Salvador.

As we have seen already, traumatic experiences aren’t just limited to what is a specific

category of children. Another group of children that suffer through traumatic experiences are

those who are born in the United Stated but have immigrant parents. Another study shows that

when examining this relationship in a convenience sample of 131 foreign-born (64.5%) and 72

U.S.-born (35.5%) Hispanic youth, ages 8–17 years. During the study, they are interviewing the

children and the caregiver. It is seen that there is no significant difference than with kids who are

immigrants. (Bridges, de Arellano, Rheingold, Danielson, and Silcott, 2010). Going into

differences of trauma and with the different types of people in the reading “Racial/Ethnic

Differences in Trauma Exposure and Mental Health Disorders in Adolescents”, they interview

with people not specifically with children but has also shown the different races and ethical

backgrounds. Showing that the one who suffers from the major numbers being with trauma

includes mental health problems being Hispanics at 11.3%. (Lopez, Andrews, Chisolm, de

Arellano, and Saundres, 2017). As looking at just the children there is data for the adult side of

exposure to trauma looking at women’s side of Latinas and being an immigrant.

From the reading “Immigrant Trauma and Mental Health Outcomes Among Latino

Youth”, it shows that two-thirds of youth have experienced at least one traumatic event, 44%

went through experienced an event once, and 23% experienced two or more traumatic events

during migration. The group of youth that goes through this the most are from the ages of 12-17
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 7

years old. As testing these traumatic events, they are least among Latinx children and testing

their mental status of the child. That these events specifically though pre-migration, during

migration, and post-migration. (Cleary, Snead, Dietz-Chavez, Rivera, and Edberg,2018). In

general, the trauma is coming from the lifestyle that a child or anyone was living and in a

different country or even coming to the U.S. thinking of a better life has caused trauma. As there

is an example of the trauma children go through in their own country which even then not just

children from other countries are the ones to suffer trauma it is also the kids who are born in the

U.S. but have immigrant parents also. Having the study was done to examine this relationship in

a convenience sample of 131 foreign-born (64.5%) and 72 U.S.-born (35.5%) Hispanic youth,

ages 8–17 years. That is interviewing them and the caregiver and from that, it is seen that there is

no significant difference than with kids who are immigrants. (Bridges, de Arellano, Rheingold,

Danielson, and Silcott,2018).

In the reading “Trauma, Depression, and Comorbid PTSD/Depression in a Community

Sample of Latina Immigrants”, looking from an adult aspect being especially for women where

the study focuses on women who go through trauma. They endure PTSD and depression after the

event and are on average, as young as 30 years old. Most of these women didn’t obtain a high

school degree. On average, a lot of the women have been in the U.S. from birth to 24 years old

being mostly mat 8 years and have been exposed to trauma. (Kaltman, Green, Mete, Shara, and

Miranda, 2010). Looking at adolescents, there has also been going through trauma exposure that

has caused stress disorder, PTSD, and PTE. As these adolescents are from the age of 13 to 17

years’ old that has caused many other mental illnesses that are just not PTSD or depression.

(McLaughlin, Koenen, Hill, Petukhova, Sampson, Zaslavsky, & Kessler, 2013). In all this, some

solutions can be done to help ease the trauma and help with mental health issues.
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 8

These life events have caused many traumatic aftermaths to anyone that has endured

immigration. Not only is it our responsibility to look at it in that moment, it is also to help focus

on the future as they live their life in adulthood. Children who immigrate live through

traumatic experiences that tend to be the main cause of them growing into adulthood with

symptoms related to depression and PTSD. I predict that the level of trauma for children

between the ages of 9 to 17 years old are more likely to be traumatized than an adult who

came to the United Stated at the ages of 9 to 17 years old.

Method

Participants

The way that I will be conducting the study of participants would be from a range of at

least 80 participants. From there the gender would be divided evenly to see the difference in

trauma between someone whose female or male. Specifically looking for people who immigrated

into the U.S. at the age of 9-17 years old. Diving it into two groups the one that is still in the age

range of 9- 17 years old and group two is the one who is not at that age range but came into the

United States as a child. Since trauma has occurred during their childhood that still is valid

because of what they felt or are going through as an adult because of their childhood.

Material

The way that this study is being modified is by de Arellano, Andrews, Arthur, Reid-

Quiñones, Vasquez, Doherty, Danielson, & Rheingold (2018). As he got the survey questions (A

Appendix) which that study put in their article being from three different articles. I will be

focusing on two specific A appendix in this study by Kilpatrick, Acierno, Saunders, Resnick,
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 9

Best, & Schnurr (2000)., and Kilpatrick, Ruggiero, Acierno, Saunders, Resnick, & Best (2003).

In a total of the first part of the survey there are twenty-nine questions and in part two of the

questions are six overall in a total of 35 questions. The participants would be asked yes or no

questions that deal with different scenarios that could have caused their trauma that may relate to

life situations. Also looking at the way that child act or does that contribute to asking the

questions to them during the time. The more yes that there is answered in participants the more

likely it contributes to the trauma of the particpant. The questions that are going to be asked are

scenario that they are going through that led them to trauma or might have to happen before

coming to the U.S. with their family. Also something to include at the beginning of the survey is

the person’s age and gender. The more yes that there is the more it shows a prediction of trauma.

It would be more helpful if they go into detail of trauma that may indicate that they suffer from a

mental illness which can be PTSD or depression.

Procedure

The way that this study will begin by visiting the Hispanic community whether it is the

neighborhood, programs intended for immigrants within the U.S., and even announcing through

TV or Spanish radio. (de Arellano, Andrews, Arthur, Reid-Quiñones, Vasquez, Doherty,

Danielson, & Rheingold, 2018). This study is showing experimental design in which is looking

at the yes and no the participant answers to the question. The independent variable being the

adult and the child and comparing the two and the dependent variable is the level of trauma and

the prediction of PTSD and depression that the participant has. (de Arellano, Andrews, Arthur,

Reid-Quiñones, Vasquez, Doherty, Danielson, & Rheingold, 2018).

Immigration life events with Child Trauma 10

When it comes to the adults, it is only looking at those who were born outside the U.S.

and came to the united states as a child. Seeing if the trauma is still there from the past childhood

experience. Then they will be placed in a room individually asking them yes or no questions

related to possible scenario events that might have occurred. With the events of the different

scenarios being the ones that have to do with them coming to the U.S. or given the event. They

might have gone through because of their immigration status in the U.S. that has affected them.

But if the in-person interviews cannot be done they will as to do via telephone interview and

asked the same questions. Before starting the interview consent forms are given to caregiver and

verbal consent to the child. As those that are Adults will be given a consent form as well as a

verbal consent. Also the consent will be Spanish and English depending on which the parent will

understand the most. The same goes for the child the interview will be given based on their

preference and feel more confident to answer the questions with. That is so the child can answer

questions with full honesty and have the freedom to say what they feel. The interview will be for

about forty-five minutes and can go on even more than an hour.

The way that these surveys will be handed out is giving both parts to all participants the

thing we will be looking out for is the numbers of the yes and no is being said in the interview.

From there it will be put into SPSS using the t-test to look at the means of two being the children

who are still between the age of 9-17 years old. From those who are no longer a child but still

immigrated into the United States as a child and experienced traumatic events.

Result

In the descriptive statistic I will be looking at the histogram charts and bar graphs in the

age of the person with the gender and the yes and no that were said in each question. Expecting
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 11

the numbers to be higher in the mean when it comes to younger people in scenarios that relate to

immigration. Looking at the way I will use to demonstrate the inferential statistic is using the

independent sampled t-test which will be focusing on the two means and standard deviations.

Group one being children that are between the ages of 9-17 years old. Group two will be people

who are no longer at those ages but still immigrated into the U.S. between those ages. From there

it will show that those who are children now are having more trauma than those who are now

adults. Also the expectation is to see where and what scenario has caused the trauma of the child.

To see the difference in the data between the children and adults that go through

immigration problems. But also see the significance in the age between them as what age would

be most likely to be experiencing trauma that leads to PTSD or depression. Also expecting the

mean in the first group being the children be larger than the second group which are the adults.

Going through the expectation of P-value would be less than .05 to see a statistical significance.

showing that the ones that are more traumatized than an adult who came into the U.S. at the ages

of those children in the study.

Immigration life events with Child Trauma 12

References

de Arellano, M. A., Andrews, Arthur R., I., II, Reid-Quiñones, K., Vasquez, D., Doherty, L. S.,

Danielson, C. K., & Rheingold, A. (2018). Immigration trauma among Hispanic youth:

Missed by trauma assessments and predictive of depression and PTSD symptoms.

Journal of Latinx Psychology, 6(3), 159-174.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/lat0000090

Johnco, C., Salloum, A., McBride, N. M., Cepeda, S., Guttfreund, D., Novoa, J. C., & Storch, E.

(2019). Child trauma exposure and subsequent emotional functioning in el Salvador.

Traumatology: An International Journal,

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/trm0000193

López, C. M., Andrews,Arthur R., I.,II, Chisolm, A. M., de Arellano, M. A., Saunders,

B., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2017). Racial/ethnic differences in trauma exposure and mental

health disorders in adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology,

23(3), 382-387. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/cdp0000126

McLaughlin, K. A., Koenen, K. C., Hill, E. D., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A.

M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in a

national sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent

Psychiatry, 52(8), 815-830.

Cleary, S. D., Snead, R., Dietz-Chavez, D., Rivera, I., & Edberg, M. C. (2018). Immigrant

trauma and mental health outcomes among latino youth. Journal of Immigrant and

Minority Health, 20(5), 1053-1059.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1007/s10903-017-0673-6

Bridges, A. J., de Arellano, M. A., Rheingold, A. A., Danielson, C. K., & Silcott, L. (2010).
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 13

Trauma exposure, mental health, and service utilization rates among immigrant and

united states-born hispanic youth: Results from the hispanic family study. Psychological

Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2(1), 40-48.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/a0019021

Kaltman, S., Green, B. L., Mete, M., Shara, N., & Miranda, J. (2010). Trauma, depression, and

comorbid PTSD/depression in a community sample of latina immigrants. Psychological

Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2(1), 31-39.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/a0018952

Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H. S., Best, C. L., & Schnurr, P. P. (2000).

Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national

sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 19-30.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/0022-006X.68.1.19

Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K. J., Acierno, R., Saunders, B. E., Resnick, H. S., & Best,

C. L. (2003).Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence,

and comorbidity:Results from the national survey of adolescents. Journal of Consulting

and Clinical Psychology,71(4), 692-700.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/0022-006X.71.4.692
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 14

Appendix A

Age______

Gender: (circle One)

Female

Male

Other

First part of Appendix A from article name “Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse
and dependence: Data from a national sample” by Kilpatrick, Acierno, Saunders, Resnick,
Best, & Schnurr, (2000).

Measurement of Current Substance Abuse/Dependence

Closed-ended questions that followed DSM–IV criteria formed a structured interview and were
asked to determine whether abuse or dependence criteria were met during the past year for each
type of substance (alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs) ...

1. Has your use of [substance] ever caused you major problems with your family, your
friends, school, or on the job?

2. Have you ever been high from [substance] in a situation where it increased your
chances of getting hurt—like driving a car or boat, swimming, or crossing the street
in heavy traffic?

3. Have you ever been arrested or had problems with the police because you were taking
[substance]—like for driving while intoxicated, for being drunk and disorderly, or for
stealing to get [substance]?

4. Have you ever continued to use [substance] in spite of having a lot of problems with
your family about using them—problems like fights, arguments, or other relationship
problems?

5. In the past year, how often have you driven while feeling the effects of [substance].

Now I'd like to ask you a few questions about things that sometimes happen to
people when they use [substance]. Have you ever had any of the following
experiences since you started using [substance]?

1. You had to increase the amount of [substance] you were taking to get high or
to get the same effect that you did when you started taking it. Or when you
took the same amount of [substance] over a long period of time, you got less
of an effect than when you first started taking it.
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 15

2. Have you ever suddenly stopped or cut down a lot on the amount of
[substance] you were using when you had been using heavily almost every
day for a long time? If so, did suddenly stopping or cutting down on any drug
you've ever taken make you sick or give you withdrawal symptoms? Have
you ever used a drug to keep you from getting sick or having withdrawal
symptoms?

3. You took more [substance] or used them for a longer period of time than you
wanted to.

4. You often wanted to cut down the amount of [substance] you were taking or
stop taking [substance] but were not able to. Or you actually tried to cut down
or stop taking [substance] but weren't able to.

5. You spent a lot of time trying to get [substance], taking [substance], or trying
to feel better after taking [substance].

6. Your [substance] use caused you to give up or spend less time in school,
work, with friends or family, or in recreation activities.

7. You kept using [substance] even though it caused you psychological

problems—like making you feel bad emotionally—or caused problems with
your health.

Measurement of Familial Alcohol Problems

1. Has anyone—either in your family or who lived with you, not counting you—drank
alcohol (beer, wine) so much that it became a problem? For example, did anyone drink so
much they got into fights with other people, or started to beat the kids, or couldn't get out
of bed the next day, or had difficulty holding a job?

Measurement of Familial Drug Use

1. Did anyone in your family or who lived with you, not counting you, use hard drugs, such as
heroin, cocaine, speed, or uppers or downers, or have a drug problem?

Measurement of Sexual Assault

1. Has a man or boy ever put a sexual part of his body inside your private sexual parts,
inside your rear end, or inside your mouth when you didn't want them to?

2. Has anyone, male or female, ever put fingers or objects inside your private sexual parts or
inside your rear end when you didn't want them to?

3. Has anyone, male or female, ever put their mouth on your private sexual parts when you
didn't want them to?
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 16

4. Has anyone, male or female, ever touched your private sexual parts when you didn't want
them to?

5. Has anyone ever made you touch their private sexual parts when you didn't want them to?

6. [For boys] Has a woman or girl ever put your private sexual part in her mouth or inside
her body when you didn't want her to?

Measurement of Physical Assault

1. Has anyone—including family members or friends—ever attacked you with a gun,

knife, or some other weapon, regardless of when it happened or whether you ever
reported it or not?

2. Has anyone—including family members and friends—ever attacked you without a

weapon, but you thought they were trying to kill or seriously injure you?

3. Has anyone—including family members and friends—ever threatened you with a gun
or knife but didn't actually shoot or cut you?

4. Has anyone—including family members and friends—ever beat you up, attacked you,
or hit you with something like a stick, club, or bottle so hard that you were hurt pretty
bad?

5. Has anyone—including family members and friends—ever beat you up with their
fists so hard that you were hurt pretty bad?

6. Families have different ways of punishing young people if they think they have done
something wrong. Some families spank young people as a form of punishment. Has a
parent or some adult in charge of you ever spanked you so hard that you had to see a
doctor because you were hurt so bad?

7. Has a parent or someone in charge of you ever spanked you so hard that you got bad
marks, bruises, cuts, or welts?

8. Has a parent or someone in charge of you ever punished you by burning you, cutting
you, or tying you up?

9. Adolescents who responded affirmatively to any of these questions were classified as

having experienced a physical assault.

Second part to Appendix A “Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance
abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results from the National Survey of Adolescents:” by
Kilpatrick, Ruggiero, Acierno, Saunders, Resnick, & Best (2003).

1. Has a man or boy ever put a sexual part of his body inside your private sexual parts,
inside your rear end, or inside your mouth when you didn't want them to?
Immigration life events with Child Trauma 17

2. (Not counting any incidents you already told me about), has anyone, male or female, ever
put fingers or objects inside your private sexual parts or inside your rear end when you
didn't want them to?

3. (Not counting any incidents you already told me about), has anyone, male or female, ever
put their mouth on your private sexual parts when you didn't want them to?

4. (Not counting any incidents you already told me about), has anyone, male or female, ever
touched your private sexual parts when you didn't want them to?

5. (Not counting any incidents you already told me about), has anyone ever made you touch
their private sexual parts when you didn't want them to?

6. For boys only: (Not counting any incidents you already told me about), has a women or
girl ever put your sexual private part in her mouth or inside her body when you didn't
want her to?