Study Guide for Thermodynamics III.
PHASES OF SUBSTANCES
I. INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the
relationship between heat and other forms of energy.
The word thermodynamics comes from two Greek
words “therme” and “dynamis” meaning “heat” and
“power” respectively.
The term “thermodynamics” was coined by James
Joule in 1849.
In 1824, Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot published
“Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire”, a discourse
on heat, power, and engine efficiency. He is the
“Father of Thermodynamics”.
Branches of Thermodynamics:
Classical Thermodynamics is concern with
thermodynamic states and properties (energy, work,
and heat) and with the laws of thermodynamics
without the atomic interpretation.
Statistical thermodynamics is the classical
thermodynamics with the inclusion of the atomic and
molecular theories and molecular interpretation.
Chemical thermodynamics is concern with the study
of the interpretation of heat with chemical reactions or
with a physical change of state within the confines of
the laws of thermodynamics.
II. PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
1. Intensive Properties – are the substance’s
properties that do not depend on the amount
of the substance present.
Examples: Stress, Pressure, Temperature
2. Extensive Properties – are the substance’s
properties that depend on the amount of the
substance present.
Examples: Mass, Volume
Normally, there are three phases of a substance, i.e.
solid, liquid, and gas. Since different substances have
different properties and behave differently, the
following are the more specific phases of substances.
1. Solid – In this phase, the substance does not
take the shape or volume of the container.
2. Subcooled liquid – In this phase, the liquid
is non-saturated. Non-saturated means that it
is not at its boiling point.
3. Saturated liquid – In this phase, the liquid
can absorb as much heat as it can without
vaporizing.
4. Liquid-Vapor mixture – In this phase, the
liquid and vapor co-exist with the same
temperature and pressure.
5. Saturated Vapor – In this phase, the vapor
has absorbed more heat than necessary to
vaporize it.
6. Ideal gas- In this phase, the gas (a highly
superheated vapor) behaves in accordance
with the ideal gas law.
7. Real gas – In this phase, the gas does not
behave in accordance with the ideal gas law.
8. Gas mixture – In this phase, two or more
gases mixed freely.
9. Vapor/ Gas mixture – In this phase, two or
more gases mixed freely with water vapor.
IV. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is defined as the degrees of hotness or
coldness of a substance. This thermodynamic property
is dependent on the substance’s energy content.
Absolute zero is the temperature at which substances
possess no thermal energy. Absolute temperature is the
temperature measured from absolute zero.
The Temperature Scales:
1. Celsius Scale
2. Fahrenheit Scale
3. Rankine Scale
4. Kelvin Scale
 Relationship of the four temperature scales: the molecular structure of a system and the degree of
the molecular activity and they are independent of
°C °F °R K outside reference frames. The sum of all the
Boiling point microscopic forms of energy is called the internal
100° 212° 671.67° 373.15
of water
energy of a system and is denoted as U.
Absolute Zero -273.15° -459.67° 0 0
Mechanical energy is the form of energy that can be
converted to mechanical work completely and directly
Temperature Scale Conversion:
by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
To change Celsius to Fahrenheit:
9
°𝐹 = °𝐶 + 32
5 VI. HEAT
To change Fahrenheit to Celsius:
5 Heat is internal energy in transit from one body of
°𝐶 = (°𝐹 − 32) matter to another by virtue of a temperature difference
9
between them. The units of heat are kilocalorie and
To change Celsius to Kelvin: Btu.
𝐾 = °𝐶 + 273.15 Kilocalorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
To change Fahrenheit to Rankine: temperature of 1 kg of water through 1°C. British
Thermal Unit (BTU) is the amount of heat needed to
°𝑅 = °𝐹 + 459.67 raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F.

Temperature Change: 1 𝐽 = 2.39 × 10−4 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙

5
∆𝑇𝐾 = ∆𝑇℃ ∆𝑇℃ = 9 ∆𝑇℉ 1 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4185 𝐽

5 1 𝐵𝑇𝑈 = 1054 𝐽
∆𝑇°𝑅 = ∆𝑇℉ ∆𝑇𝐾 = 9 ∆𝑇°𝑅
1 𝐵𝑇𝑈 = 0.252 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙

V. INTERNAL ENERGY
The term “energy” is coined by Thomas Young in
1807. All potential and kinetic energies of the atoms
or molecules in a substance are called internal
energy. All forms of thermodynamic energy are
measured by BTU (British Thermal Unit). The unit for
specific internal energy (u) are Btu/lbm and kJ/kg.
The units for molar internal energy (U) are
Btu/lbmol and kJ/kmol. Molar internal energy is the
product of molecular weight and specific internal
energy. Mathematically,
𝑈 = (𝑀𝑊)(𝑢)
In thermodynamic analysis, thermal energy of a
system is made up of two groups, namely macroscopic
and microscopic. Macroscopic forms of energy are
those a system possesses with respect to some outside
reference frame such as kinetic and potential energies.
The microscopic forms of energy are those related to
1 𝐵𝑇𝑈 = 778 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏
Specific heat is defined as the ratio of the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
a substance by one unit of temperature to the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of a similar
mass of a reference material, usually water, by the
same amount.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Where c = specific heat capacity of a substance
For water:
𝑐 = 4.190 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾
𝑐 = 1.0 𝐵𝑇𝑈/𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙ ℉
For gases:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 → Constant Volume Process
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 → Constant Pressure Process
The molar specific heat, C is the product of molecular 𝑄
Convection: = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇
𝑡
weight and the specific heat of the substance.
Mathematically, Where: h = convection coefficient
𝐶 = (𝑀𝑊)(𝑐) The rate R (in W/m2) at which an object of surface are
A and absolute temperature T emits radiation is given
The unit of molar specific heat is Btu/lbmo/℉ or by the Stefan-Boltzmann law as:
J/kmol°C.
𝑃
The Dulong-Petit Law, proposed in 1819 by French 𝑅= = 𝑒𝜎𝑇 4
𝐴
physicists and chemists Pierre Louis Dulong and Alex
Therese Petit, states the classical expression for the Where: 𝜎 = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2∙K4
specific heat capacity of a crystal due to its lattice
e = emissivity (value from 0 to 1)
vibrations. This law makes possible the prediction of
the approximate molar specific heat at high e = 0 for perfect absorber (body that
temperatures from the atomic weight.
does not radiate at all)
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by
means of conduction, convection, or radiation. e = 1 for blackbody
Conduction (or heat conduction) is the transfer of
A black body is an idealized object that absorbs all
thermal energy between neighboring molecules in a
electromagnetic radiation falling on it. The term
substance due to a temperature gradient. Convection
“black body” was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in
is the transfer of heat by the motion of a volume of hot
1860.
liquid from one place to another. Radiation takes
place by means of electromagnetic waves which A thermograph is a device that measures the amount
require no material medium for their passage. of infrared radiation each small portion of a person’s
skin emits.
Fourier’s Law (Law of Heat Conduction) states that
the time rate of heat transfer of heat transfer through a
material is proportional to the negative gradient in the
temperature and to the area, at right angles to that VII. TRIPLE POINT & CRITICAL POINT
gradient, through which the heat is flowing. PROPERTIES
𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇 𝐴∆𝑇
Heat Conduction: = =
𝑡 𝑑 𝑅
The unique state at which solid, liquid, and gaseous
𝑄
Where: = heat conduction phase can coexist is called the triple point of the
𝑡
substance. Critical point, also called a critical state,
k = thermal conductivity specifies the conditions (temperature, pressure, and
sometimes composition) at which a phase boundary
∆𝑇 = change in temperature
ceases to exist. There are multiple types of critical
d = thickness of slab or material points such as vapor-liquid critical points and liquid-
liquid critical points.
A = area
Properties at critical state are called critical
R = thermal resistance properties.
Thermal conductivity, k, of the material is a measure
of its ability to conduct heat. The larger the k, the faster
the heat transfer.

Thermal resistance is the insulating ability of a layer

of a material.
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑
𝑅= =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘
VIII. LATENT HEAT AND SENSIBLE HEAT 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑝𝑉

Where: U = internal energy

Latent Heat, QL, is the quantity of heat absorbed or
p = absolute pressure
released by a substance undergoing a change of state,
such as ice changing to water or water to steam, at V = volume
constant temperature and pressure. Latent heat is
sometimes known as heat of transformation. The enthalpy-entropy diagram is a graph of enthalpy
versus entropy for steam. This is commonly called as
Latent Heat of Fusion – changing from solid to liquid the Mollier diagram, named after Richard Mollier.
Latent Heat of Vaporization – change from liquid to
gas
X. IDEAL GASES
Latent Heat of Sublimation – change from solid to
gas without becoming liquid

For water at standard atmospheric pressure: An ideal gas is one, when kept at a constant
temperature, would obey the gas laws exactly.
Latent Heat kJ/kg cal/g Btu/lbm However, there is no known gas that is an ideal gas.
Fusion 333.5 79.7 143.4
Vaporization 2256.7 539.1 970.3 The equation of state for ideal gases is the
Sublimation 2838 667.8 1220 relationship that predicts the state from a set of two
Sensible heat, QS, is the quantity of heat that changes other independent properties.
the temperature of the substance without changing its Avogadro’s Law (named after Amedeo Avogadro)
phase. The total heat, QT, entering a substance is the states that equal volumes of different gases at the same
sum of the latent heat and the sensible heat. temperature and pressure contain equal number of
Mathematically, molecules. Thus, the number of molecules in a specific
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑄𝑆 volume of gas is independent of the size or mass of the
gas molecules.
𝑝𝑉
=𝑅
IX. ENTROPY AND ENTHALPY 𝑇
Where: V = volume
Entropy is a measure of the unavailability of a P = pressure
system’s energy to do work. It is a measure of the
randomness of molecules in a system. Absolute T = absolute temperature
entropy is a measure of the energy that is no longer If there are “n” moles;
available to perform useful work within the current
environment. The units for specific absolute entropy 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
are Btu/lbm°R and kJ/kgK and for molar entropy, 𝑚
Btu/lbmol°R and kJ/kmolK. Where: n = number of moles, 𝑛 =
𝑀𝑊

Enthalpy is the thermodynamic function of system, m = mass of substance

equivalent to the sum of the internal energy of the
system plus the product of its volume multiplied by the
pressure exerted on it by its surroundings. Enthalpy
has the same unit as the internal energy.
MW = molecular weight of substance
Values of universal gas constant, R:
R = 8.3413 kJ/kmol-K

R = 0.08206 atm-l/mol-K

R= 1.96cal/mol-K
 R = 8.314 J/mol-K
R = 82.06 atm-cm3/kmol-K
R = 0.08206 atm-m3/kmol-K
R = 8314.3 kg-m2/s2kmol-K
R = 8314.3 m3Pa/kmol-K
R = 8.314 x 107 erg/mol-K
R = 1545.33 ft-lbf/lbmol-°R
R = 1.9686 Btu/lbmol-°R
R = 0.7302 atm-ft3/lbmol-°R
R = 10.73 ft3-lbf/in2-lbmol-°R
Density of Ideal Gases:
1 𝑃
𝜌= = the time between successive collisions.
𝑣 𝑅𝑇
Where: v = volume
p = pressure
R = universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature
Kinetic theory (or the kinetic or kinetic-molecular
theory of gases) is the theory that gases are made up of
a large number of small particles (atoms or molecules),
all of which are in constant, random motion. The
rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each
other and within the walls of the container. Kinetic
theory explains macroscopic properties of gases, such
as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering
their molecular composition and motion. This theory
predicts the velocity distribution of gas molecules as a
function of temperature.
5. Except during collisions, the interactions among
molecules are negligible (they exert no forces on
one another).
6. The total volume of the individual gas molecules
are added up is negligible compared to the
volume of the container. This is equivalent to
stating that the average distance separating the
gas particles is large compared to their size.
7. The molecules are perfectly spherical in shape,
and elastic in nature.
8. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles
depends only on the temperature of the system.
9. Relativistic effects are negligible.
10. Quantum-mechanical effects are negligible. This
means that the interparticle distance is much
larger than the thermal de Broglie wavelength
and the molecules are treated as classical objects.
11. The time during collision of molecule with the
container’s wall is negligible as comparable to
12. The equations of motion of the molecules are
time-reversible.
The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution describes
particle speeds in gases, where the particles do not
constantly interact with each other but move freely
between short collisions. It describes the probability of
a particle’s speed (the magnitude of its velocity vector)
being near a given value as a function of the
temperature of the system, the mass of the particle, and
that speed value. This probability distribution is named
after James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann.
The most probable speed of a molecule with mass m
is:
2𝐾𝑇
𝑣𝑃 = √
𝑚

The theory makes the following assumptions: Where: K = Boltzmann constant

𝐽
1. The gas consists of very small particles, all with = 1.3807 × 10−23
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒∙𝐾
non-zero mass.
2. The number of molecules is large such that The mean speed of a molecule with mass m is:
statistical treatment can be applied.
3. These molecules are in constant, random motion. 2𝐾𝑇
𝑣𝑚 = 2√
The rapidly moving particles collide with the 𝜋𝑚
walls of the container.
4. The collisions of gas particles with the walls of The root-mean-square speed of a molecule with mass
the container holding them are perfectly elastic. m is:
 XI. REAL GASES
3𝐾𝑇
𝑣𝑚𝑠 = √ Real gases are gases that do not obey exactly the gas
𝑚 laws. Real gas molecules attract each other by forces
known as Van der Waals’ forces.
The ratios od the three velocities above are as follows:
𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑠 Correlations are applied to the ideal gas law to solve
= 1.128 and = 1.225 problems in real gases. One of these correlations is the
𝑣𝑃 𝑣𝑃
Van der Waals equation of state, which is as follows:
The absolute temperature is proportional to the square
of rms velocity, thus: 𝑎
(𝑝 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉2
𝑚
𝑇=( ) (𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 Where: a and b are van der Waals factors
3𝐾
The mean translational kinetic energy of the molecule p = absolute pressure
is proportional to the mean absolute temperature.
V = volume
1 2
3
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐾𝑇 n = number of moles
2 2
The pressure of a gas is equal to the total change in R = universal gas constant
momentum of all gas molecules bouncing off the walls T = absolute temperature
of the container.
2 2
For ideal gas, a and b are both equal to zero.
𝜌𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑁𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑝= = Note: The specific heat of a real gas varies with
3 3𝑉
temperature and slightly with pressure.
Where: N = number of molecules

V = volume

Brownian Movement (named after the Scottish XII. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

botanist Robert Brown) is the seemingly random
movement of particles suspended in a fluid (i.e. a
A thermodynamic system refers to a matter enclosed
liquid such as water or air) or the mathematical model
within a defined volume. Everything external to the
used to describe such random movements, often called
system is defined as the surroundings or environment
a particle theory.
or universe.
Amagat’s Law states that the total volume of a
Open System – if mass flows through the system
mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of
across system boundaries. In open system, heat, work
the partial volumes. This law is also known as
and matter may cross the boundary. This is often called
Amagat-Leduc’s law or the law of partial volumes.
“control volume”.
Dalton’s Law (named after John Dalton) states that
Examples: Jet engines, pumps
the total pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal
to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual Steady flow system – matter enters and leaves at the
component in a gas mixture. This law is also called same rate.
Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
Examples: Boilers, turbines

Closed System – if no mass flows through the system

boundaries, i.e. matter does not cross boundary.

Isolated System – if neither mass nor energy crosses

the system boundaries.

Diathermic System – if energy crosses the system

boundaries.
Summary: For any given set of initial conditions,
inversion temperature or inversion point is
System Remarks the only one temperature at which no
Matter and energy may not cross the temperature change occurs when a real gas is
Isolated
boundary
throttled.
Adiabatic Heat must not cross the boundary
The ratio of change in temperature to the
Diathermic Heat may cross the boundary
change in pressure when a real gas throttled
Closed Matter may not cross the boundary
is called Joule-Thomson coefficient. This
Heat, work, and matter may cross the
Open coefficient is also known as the Joule-Kelvin
boundary
coefficient.
7. Quasistatic Process – is one which can be
XIII. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES divided infinitesimally from equilibrium
8. Polytropic Process – the process that follows
the polytropic equation of state. The
Thermodynamic process is defined as the energetic polytropic equation of state is as follows:
evolution a thermodynamic system proceeding from 𝑝1 (𝑉1 )𝑛 = 𝑝1 (𝑉1 )𝑛
an initial state to a final state.
Where: n = polytropic exponent
The following are the common types of
n = 0 for constant pressure
thermodynamic processes.
process
1. Adiabatic process – no heat or other
processes crosses the system boundary n = 1 for constant temperature
𝑄=0 process
∆𝑈 = −𝑊 n = k for isentropic process
The term “adiabatic” comes from the Greek n = ∞ for constant volume
word “adiabatos” which means “not to be
passed”. process

2. Constant Pressure System – also known as 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 ∆𝑇

isobaric process.
where: cn = polytopic specific heat
∆𝑝 = 0
𝑄 = ∆𝐻 𝑛−𝑘
Constant Temperature Process – also 𝑐𝑛 = ∙𝑐
3. 𝑛−1 𝑣
known as isothermal process
9. Reversible Process – the process in which its
∆𝑇 = 0
conclusion, both the system and the local
𝑄=𝑊
surroundings can be restored to their initial
4. Constant Volume Process – also known as
state.
isochoric or isometric process
10. Irreversible Process – the process in which
∆𝑉 = 0
its conclusion, both the system and the local
𝑄 = ∆𝑈
surroundings cannot be restored to their
𝑊=0
initial state
5. Isentropic Process – an adiabatic process in
which there is no change in system entropy Where: Q = heat
∆𝑆 = 0
𝑄=0 ∆𝑈 = change in internal energy
6. Throttling Process – an adiabatic process in
W = work
which there is no change in system enthalpy
but with a significant drop in pressure ∆𝑝 = change in pressure
∆𝐻 = 0
𝑝2 < 𝑝1 ∆𝐻 = change in enthalpy
 ∆𝑇 = change in temperature whose differential equals the work exchanged with the
surroundings during an adiabatic process.”
∆𝑉 = change in volume
SECOND LAW
∆𝑆 = change in entropy
“The total entropy of an isolated thermodynamic
Summary: system tends to increase over time, approaching a
Process Remarks maximum value.”
Isobaric Constant Pressure Second law is about entropy. A second formulation,
Isochoric or due to Rudolf Clausius, is the simplest formulation of
Constant Volume
Isometric the second law, the heat formulation or Clausius
Isothermal Constant Temperature
statement:
Adiabatic No loss or gain of heat
Isentropic Constant entropy “Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a
Isenthalpic Constant enthalpy material at lower temperature to a material at higher
Steady State No change in internal energy temperature.”

A third formulation of the second law, by Lord Kelvin,

In calculating heat and work, always remember that is the heat engine formulation, or Kelvin statement:
heat, Q, is positive if heat flows into the system and
work, W, is positive if the system does work on the “It is impossible to convert heat completely into work
surroundings. in a cyclic process.”

A fourth version of the second law was deduced by the

Greek mathematician Constantin Caratheodory. The
XIV. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS Caratheodory statement:

“In the neighbourhood of any equilibrium state of a

ZEROTH LAW
“If two thermodynamic systems are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other,”
Zeroth Law is about thermodynamic equilibrium or
equivalence relation. The term zeroth law was coined
by Ralph H. Fowler in the 1920s. This law is arguably
the most fundamental of the four numbered laws of
thermodynamics. It was called the zeroth law because
the need to state it explicitly was not understood until
after the First, Second, and Third laws had been named
and become common place.
FIRST LAW
“The change in the internal energy of a closed
thermodynamic system is equal to the sum of the
amount of heat energy supplied to the system and the
work done on the system.”
First law is about the conservation of energy.
The first explicit statement of the first law of
thermodynamics was given by Rudolf Clausius in
1850: “There is a state function E, called “energy”,
thermodynamic system, there are equilibrium states
that are adiabatically inaccessible.”
THIRD LAW
“The entropy of all systems and of all states of a system
is zero at absolute zero.”
Third law is about absolute zero temperature. The
third law was developed by the chemist Walther
Nernst, during the years 1906-1912, and is thus
sometimes referred to as Nernst’s theorem or
Nernst’s postulate. According to Nernst, the entropy of
a system at absolute zero temperature is a well-defined
constant. This is because a system at zero temperature
exists in its ground state, so that its entropy is
determined only by the degeneracy of the ground stat;
or, it states that “it is impossible by any procedure, no
matter how idealized, to reduce any system to the
absolute zero of temperature in a finite number of
operations”.
An alternative version of the third law of
thermodynamics as stated by Gilbert N. Lewis and
Merle Randall in 1923”
“If the entropy of each element in some (perfect)
crystalline state be taken as zero at the absolute zero
of temperature, every substance has a finite positive
entropy.; but at the absolute zero of temperature, the
entropy may become zero, and does so become in the
case of perfect crystalline substances.”
This version states not only ∆𝑆 will reach zero at 0
Kelvins, but S itself will also reach zero, atleast for
perfect crystalline substances.
FOURTH LAW
The typical COP ranges between 2 and 3. The higher
the COP, the less work is needed to remove a given
amount of heat from the cold chamber.
Energy efficient ratio (EER) of a refrigerator or air-
conditioner is the ratio between the heat in BTU
extracted per hour and the power in units the machine
consumes:
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟()
𝐸𝐸𝑅 = ℎ𝑟
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)

Onsager reciprocal relation expresses the equality of 𝐸𝐸𝑅 = 3.42 (𝐶𝑂𝑃)

certain relations between flows and forces in An ideal refrigerator (Carnot refrigerator) is a
thermodynamic systems out of equilibrium but where Carnot engine operating backwards. COP of Carnot
a notion of local equilibrium exists. This is sometimes refrigerator is:
called the FOURTH LAW of Thermodynamics.
𝑄1 𝑇1
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
𝑄2 − 𝑄1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
XV. HEAT ENGINE
Heat engine is any device that converts heat into
mechanical energy or work. Carnot engine is an REFERENCES
idealized engine that is not subject to practical [1] Tiong, J. Tiong J. The ECE Handbook – General
difficulties such as friction or heat loss by conduction Engineering and Applied Sciences.
or radiation but that obeys all physical laws. No engine
operating between the same two temperatures can be
more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between
them.
𝑊 𝑄
Engine efficiency: 𝐸𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄 = 1 − 𝑄2
1 1

𝑇2
Carnot efficiency: 𝐸𝑓𝑓 = 1 − 𝑇
1

Where: Q = heat

W = work

T = absolute temperature

A heat pump is a refrigeration system that can take

heat from the cold outdoors in winter and deliver it to
the interior of a house.

A refrigerator is a heat engine operating in reverse.

The work done on a refrigerator is:

𝑊 = 𝑄2 − 𝑄1

The coefficient of performance (COP) is the ratio

between the absorbed heat and the work required:
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
𝑊 𝑄2 − 𝑄1