ST. JOHN OF BUUG FOUNDATION INC.

National Highway Poblacion, Buug, Zamboanga Sibugay

THEORIES OF COMBUSTION
MODULE 1

Objectives:

 Define combustion
 Enumerate the elements of fire
 Appreciate the importance of combustion in our daily life.

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Fire Triangle Theory – graphical representations of the fire three elements of fire, namely: Oxygen, Heat,
and Fuel.

Each side is just as important as either of the other two sides. There cannot be fire without all the three
parts presents a in equal proportion.

Using the same theory, there are three ways to extinguish fire:

1. Remove the fuel

2. Cut-off the oxygen supply
3. Reduce the temperature(cooling)

Elements of Fire

1. HEAT – a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in
combustion or burning.

Heat Sources:
a. Open flame d. hot surfaces
b. Electrical circuit e. friction
c. sparks f. all sources of ignition

2. OXYGEN – a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is approximately
21% by volume.

Oxygen Sources: Oxygen Requirements

1. 21% of normal oxygen 1. 12 % - no fire

2. 78% of nitrogen 2.14% - flash point
3.1% of other gases 3. 21% - fire point

3. FUEL – any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and produce flames.

Fuel Sources:
1. Solid – molecules are closely packed together.
2. Liquid – molecule are loosely packed
3. Gas – molecules are free to moved.

Common Types of solids

a. Bulky b. Finely divided c. Dust

1. coal 1. Coal 1. Saw dust

2. wood 2. Paper 2.sugar

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

 3. wax 3.cork 3.grain
4. grease 4.leather

Common Types of Gases

1. natural gases 4. hydrogen

2. propane 5. acetylene
3. butane 6. Olive oil

Components/Element of the Fire Tetrahedron Fire Tetrahedron

1. Oxygen – (Oxidizing Agent)

Oxidizing agents are those materials that yield oxygen or

other oxidizing gases during the process of a chemical
reaction. Oxidizers are not themselves combustible, but
they support combustion when combined with a fuel.

2. Fuel (Reducing Agent)

Fuel is the material or substances being burned in the combustion process. In terms, the fuel in a
combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent. Most common fuels contain carbon along with
combustions of hydrogen and oxygen.

3. Heat (Temperature)

Heat is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes in contract with a fuel,
the energy supports the combustion process.

For Combustion to occur, four elements are

necessary:

1. oxygen
2.fuel
3. heat
4. self-sustaining chemical reaction

Types of Energy:( Common Sources of Heat)

1. Chemical Energy – it is most common source of heat in combustion reactions. When any
combustible is in contact with oxygen oxidation occurs. The reaction of this process results in the
production of heat.

Examples: Heat generated from a burning match, self – heating

2. Electrical Energy – Electrical energy can generate temperature high enough to ignite any
combustible materials near the heated area.

Factors involving electrical Heating:

 Current flow through a resistance

 Overcurrent or overload
 Arcing
 Sparking
 Static

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

 3. Nuclear Energy – is generated when atoms either split apart(fission) or combine (fusion).

Examples:

a. Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity.

b. The solar energy is product of a fusion reaction (form of nuclear energy).

4. Mechanical Energy

An energy created by friction and compression.

 Heat of Friction
 Heat of compression

Combustion

Fire and combustion are terms that are often used interchangeably. Technically speaking, fire is a
form of combustion. Combustion is self-sustaining chemical reaction producing energy or products that
cause more reactions of some kind. Combustion is an exothermic reaction. Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining
oxidization process accompanied by the release of heat and light of different intensities. The time it takes
reaction that is observed.

Products of Combustion

Fire gases - are those that remain when other products of combustion of combustion cool to
normal temperature. Common combustibles contain carbon, which forms carbo dioxide and carbon
dioxide when burned. Other fire gases include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen
cyanide, nitrous and nitric oxide, phosgene, and hydrogen chloride.

Types of Poisonous Gases

1. Hydrogen sulfide – a fire gas found during fires involving organic materials containing sulfur, such
as such: rubber, hair, wood, meat and hides.
2. Hydrogen Cyanide – a toxic gas found in oxygen-starve fires involving nitrogen – containing
materials such as wood, silk, urethane, polymides and acrylics.
3. Hydrogen Chloride – a gas which can be fatal after only a few breaths is produced in fires
involving chloride containing plastic. Plastics can found anywhere; from furnishings to electrical
insulation, conduit and pipings.

Flame – is the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with more
oxygen. Flame fades when carbon burns completely, so flame is considered a product of incomplete
combustion.

Types of flames

a. According to color and completeness of combustions.

1. Luminous flame – a reddish orange, it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete
combustion; it has lower temperature.
2. Non – luminous flame bluish in color; it it does not deposit soot because it is a product of
complete combustion; it has a higher temperature than luminous flame.
b. According to burning fuel and air mixture:
1. Premixed flame – example of a Bunsen burner
2. Diffusion flame – example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch (diffused- dispersed; widely
spread).
c. Based on Smoothness
1. Laminar flame – (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle follows a smooth path
through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent flame – (rough flame) those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies.

Nature of Fire

Even the most flammable materials (capable of being easily ignited) do not actually burn. The
vapor given off by, a material is the part that burns. When a piece of wood, rather, from the vapors that

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

are given off by the wood. The heat causes the substances in the wood to vaporize. The heated vapors
mix quickly with oxygen in the air and fire results. This process known as Pyrolosis.

Pyrolosis

- it refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the
thermal decomposition of a solid fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of a solid fuel through the
action of heat.

The process of pyrolysis involve the following:

1. the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point.
2. Decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor.
3. Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel. These
combustible vapors are technically termed as free radicals.
4. Free radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of oxygen is prevent.

The most common type of free- radicals – (combustible vapors)

1. hydrogen gas
2. carbon monoxide
3. carbon dioxide
4. nitrogen

Heat

- a form of energy measured in degree of temperatures; it is the product of combustion that spread
the fire. It causes burns and other injuries such as dehydration, heat exhaustion, and respiratory
tract injuries. Heat, oxygen depletion and carbon monoxide formation are the primary hazards in
fires.

Smoke

- is the visible product of incomplete combustion, usually a mixture of oxygen, carbon monoxide,
carbon monoxide finely divided particles of soot and carbon and miscellaneous assortment of
product released from the burning materials.

PROPERTIES OF FIRE
a. Physical Properties

1. Specific gravity – ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an

equal volume of water
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a
volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure
3. Vapor pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid
at equilibrium.
4. Temperature – the measure of thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a
given substance; the measure of the molecular activity within a substance.
5. Boiling point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition temperature or kindling temperature – the minimum temperature to which
the substance in minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be
heated in order to initiate or cause self-contained combustion without the addition
of heat from outside sources.
7. Fire point – the temperature at which a material is not hot enough to keep
burning. There is usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference between the flashpoint
and the fire point of most materials. Since these two are just a few degrees apart.

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

 8. Flashpoint – the temperature at which a material is hot enough to keep burning,
but still gives off enough vapors to cause a flame to “flash” across the surface.
The term “flashpoint” is used to express the condition of fuel vaporizing, whether
or not it is vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.
B. Chemical Properties
1. Endothermic reaction – are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added
before the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic reaction – reactions or changes that release or given off energy(heat) thus
they produce substances with less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change in which combustible material(fuel) and an oxidizing
agent react.
4. Combustion – the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion. A
matter that is produced by fire.
Vapor Density
- is the density of a vapor in relation to that of hydrogen. It may be defined as mass of a certain
volume of a substance divided by mass of same volume of hydrogen.

In order to measure the weight of these vapors we usually compare them to air, which is considered to
have a vapor density of 1.00. Therefore, if we say that a substance has a vapor density of 1.5, it means
that it is on-hand- a – half times as heavy as air under the same conditions of pressure and temperature.
If a substance has vapor density of, 7, it is lighter than air, weighing only 7/10 as much as an equal
volume of air.

The following chart lists the Vapor Density (air = 1) for some of the more common flammable materials:

MATERIALS VAPOR DENSITY

Acetylene 0.9
Butane 2.0
Gasoline 3-4
Hydrogen 0.1
JP-4 3.0
Kerosene 3.0t
Propane 1.6

Phases of Burning/The Three Stages of Fire

1. Incipient/Beginning phase – it is the initial stage of fire.

2. Free- Burning Phase – the second phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in the
presence of adequate oxygen.

3. Smoldering Phase – the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat
completely fill the confined room.

Backdraft

Firefighting operating at fires in buildings must use precautionary measures when opening a building to
gain entry, by providing ventilation either by horizon /across ventilation (opening a hole at the highest
portion of the affected part of the building. As the fire grows in a confine area, large volumes of hot,
unburned fire gases can collect in unventilated spaces. These gases may be at or above their ignition
temperature but have insufficient oxygen available to actually ignite. Any action taken during fire fighting
operations that allows air to mix with these hot gases can result in an explosive ignition called backdraft.

Conditions that indicate the danger for backdraft

a. pressurized smoke exiting small openings

b. black smoke becoming dense gray yellow
c. confinement and excessive heat
d. little or no visible flame
e. smoke leaving the building in puffs or intervals
f. smoke stained windows

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

Flash over

Flash over when a room or other area is heated enough that flames sweep over the entire surface.
Firefighters originally believed that combustible gases released during the early stages of the fire cause
flashover by collecting at the ceiling and mixing with air until they burst into flames.

Combustible material is grouped into one of four classifications. These classes of fuel help to simplify
firefighting methods and techniques.

Classification of Fire

By knowing the classes of fire in certain materials will fall into, you will be able to make intelligent
firefighting decisions.

A. Based on Cause:

1. Natural Fire

2. Accidental Fire

3. Intentional Fire

Classes of Fire (Based on Burning Fuel)

1. Class A – materials involving vegetable fibers,wood,papers straw,grain,and grass, combustible

materials such as coal and coke. Nearly all thrash fires are considered as Class A.
2. Class B – materials including petroleum products such as gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating oil, and
tallow: vegetable extracts such as alcohol, linseed oil, and turpentine; vegetable compounds such
as shortenings and oleomargarines; natural gases and compressed gases such as butane,
propane, hydrogen and acetylene.
3. Class C – this type of fire involves electrical motors, electrical appliances and apparatus. Actually
Class A and Class B materials or combination of both. Use of water is usually dangerous
because of the risk of electrical shock.
4. Class D – these are materials involving combustible metals, alloys, or metal compounds either in
a solid, semi solid or liquid state. They may further reduce in shavings, grindings, granules or
dust. Some liquid metals are kept in a liquid state and under pressure. Usually these liquid metals
are extremely dangerous . Some of the more unusual metals are: sodium (NA), magnesium,
titanium, sodium potassium and uranium as well as pyrophoric organometallic reagents such as
alkylithuims, grignards and diethylzinc. These types of materials burn at high temperature and will
react violently with water, air and or other chemicals.

Spontaneous Heating

Spontaneous heating and spontaneous ignition start as a result of chemical reaction within the
material- a reaction independent of any that outside source of heat. Spontaneous heating begins a cycle
of oxidation that builds up heat very slowly in its first stage. The condition that builds up temperature high
enough to cause ignition is called spontaneous heating. At this point, it becomes spontaneous ignition. In
most materials this process develops slowly and does not reach it ignition point for days or even weeks;
consequently, fire may break out today that were actually started days before. Usually there is enough air
to allow oxidation, but not enough air to carry the heat from the area. Some of the common materials that
may spontaneously heated and ignited are animal oils, mixed fish oils, linseed oil, coal, coke, charcoal,
hay, grain and cotton.

DAY 3

Propagation of Fire

Propagation of fire simply means the spread of fire. As a substance burns, fire propagation will be
increased by the transmission of heat by nearby materials. The condition causes additional vapors to be
released thereby spreading the fire.

Types of Heat Transmission

1. Conduction – it is the transmission of heat through an object. medium or conductor, such as pipe,
metal, hot air duct, wire, or even wall.
2. Radiation – the transmission through the discharge and spread of heat from a heated or burning

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

 3. Convection -it is the transmission of heat by the moving currents of liquid or gas. When these
gases or liquids are heated, they start to move within themselves; and by their free motion,
circulation starts.
4. Flame contact – heat may be conducted from one body to another by directs flame contact. When
a material is heated to the point where flammable vapors are released, the vapors may be
ignited. Any other flammable materials may be heated to its ignition temperature by direct contact
with the flame or burning vapors.

Intensity of Fire

- Means simply “how hot the fire is burning.” Some types of fuels naturally burn hotter (more
intensity) than others. For example, a gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood fire, while an
acetylene flame is hotter than a gasoline flame.

Factors to determine the intensity of fire:

1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present.

Explosive Limits

- Means the amount (expressed in percent) of favor that can be mixed with air to form and
explosive or flammable mixture. If less that this amount is used, the mixture will not burn. This is
known as “lean” to burn. If more than this amount is used, the mixture is called to rich and will not
burn.
- There is a minimum proportion of vapor- to- air below which the vapor will not burn and there is
also a maximum proportion of vapor – to air above which the vapor will not burn. The minimum
(lower) and minimum (upper) limits of the proportion of vapor – to- air in which the mixture will
ignite or explode are known as the lower and upper explosive limits.

Magnitude of Fire

The magnitude of fire means the size of a fire means the size of a fire, and it is governed by the surface
area of fuel exposed to the air. The magnitude of fire is not always determined by the amount of fuel
exposed to the air.

Flashpoint

The temperature at which the materials is not enough to keep burning, but still gives off enough vapors
to cause a flame to “flash” across the surface.

Firepoint

The temperature at which the materials will give off ample vapors to keep burning. There is
usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference the flashpoint and fire point of most materials. Since the two are
just a few degrees apart, the term “flashpoint” is used to express the condition of fuel vaporizing, whether
or not it is vaporizing, whether or not it is vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.

Ignition Temperature

- Is degree of heat necessary to ignite flammable vapors. This temperature can come from an
external source (match, spark, and friction): or if the fuel itself is raised to this temperature, auto –
ignition (self- ignition) will occur.

The following are explosive limits (percent by volume in air) some of the more common fuels:

Fuel Lower Point Upper Limit

Acetylene 2.5% 80.0%

Butane 1.9% 8.5%

Gasoline 1.4%to1.5% 7.4%to 7.;6%

Hydrogen 4.0% 75.0%

JP-4 1.3% 6.5%

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

Propane 2.2% 9.5%

The following are the Flaspoint and Ignition Temperatures for some of the more common fuels

FUEL FLASHPOINT IGNITION TEMPERATURE

Gasoline 60 to 80Octane -45degree F 536-700 degrees F

JP- 4 30degree F 468 degrees F
Kerosene 100 degrees F 444 degrees F

Cleaning
Solvents 100-110 degrees F 450 degrees F
Paper Approx.250-300 F Approx.475 F
Wood Approx.350-400 F Approx.750 F

Oxidation

In nearly all fires, oxidation takes place by using the oxygen that is present in the
atmosphere. However, in some cases certain chemical compounds known as oxidizing agents
are involved. Though no flammable themselves, when they are heated of when they come in
contact with water, they give off oxygen which in turn, supports the burning materials.

The more common Oxidizing Agents:

1. Nitrates
2. 2. Chlorates
3. Peroxide

If a small quantity of potassium chlorate is added to pile of flour or starch, and heat is applied,
the mixture will burst into flame and burn violently. Without the addition of the oxidizing agent, these
same would be extremely slow in igniting.

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

 ST. JOHN COLLEGE OF BUUG FOUNDATION
National Highway, Buug , Zamboanga Sibugay

COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
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Writing to Learn Worksheet 1

Name: ____________________________________________

Instructions: Answer the following questions.

After answering send it online to rudelyndulfotingcang@yahoo.com

Activity 1

1.What are oxidizing agents and what effect do they have of fire?
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2. What are the more common oxidizing agents?

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Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

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3. In the confined room, where would you find the coldest air, why?

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4. Fire tetrahedron differs from the fire triangle, in that a fourth elements have been added. What is the
added element?

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5.Explain the Nature of Fire

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6. What is oxidation?

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Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

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7.What cause any flammable substance to burn?

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8. What happen if the temperature of fuel is raised to its ignition temperature?

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9.The term “fire point” is used to express what condition?

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10. The magnitude of fire is governed by what factor?

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Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions

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Fire Technology and Arson Investigation Module: Theories of Combustions