Chapter 1

Chemistry:
The Study of Change

Chemical fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, pesticides, drugs,

pharmaceuticals, polymer, plastics, nylon, ethylene, propylene, polyethylene,
cement, steel, industrial metals, detergents, soap, paper, glass, paints,
pigments, cosmetics, perfumes, cooking gas, gasoline, diesel, crude oil,
petrochemistry, natural gas, nuclear energy, TNT, raw materials into important
chemicals, food additives, adhesives, catalysts and so on………………………

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further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
(1 of 2)
Health and Medicine
• Sanitation systems
• Surgery with anesthesia (a)
• Vaccines and antibiotics
• Gene therapy

Energy and the Environment

• Fossil fuels
• Solar energy
• Nuclear energy
(b) © McGraw-Hill Education. 1-2
Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
(2 of 2)
Materials and Technology
• Polymers, ceramics, liquid crystals
• Room-temperature superconductors (c)

• Molecular computing

Food and Agriculture

• Genetically modified crops
• “Natural” pesticides
• Specialized fertilizers
(d) © McGraw-Hill Education. 1-3
The Study of Chemistry

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-4
 The Scientific Method (1 of 2)
The scientific method is a systematic approach to research.

 Define the problem

 Perform experiments, make observations, record data
(qualitative or quantitative)
 Interpretation

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of observations.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-5
 The Scientific Method (2 of 2)

A law is a concise statement of a relationship between

phenomena that is always the same under the same
conditions.
Force = mass × acceleration

A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts

and/or those laws that are based on them.

Atomic Theory

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 Defining Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
Water, earth, tree, etc.
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite composition
and distinct properties. Gold, ammonia, sugar, etc.

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 Mixtures (1 of 2)
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the
substances retain their distinct identities. Air, milk, cement, etc.
1. Homogenous mixture – composition of the
mixture is the same throughout

2. Heterogeneous mixture – composition is

not uniform throughout

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 Mixtures (2 of 2)
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture into its pure
components.

magnet

distillation
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 Elements (1 of 2)
An element is a substance that cannot be separated into
simpler substances by chemical means.

• 118 elements have been identified

• 82 elements occur naturally on Earth gold,aluminum,

lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur

• 36 elements have been created by scientists

technetium, americium, seaborgium

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 Elements (2 of 2)
Table 1.1 Some Common Elements and Their Symbols
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
Aluminum Al Fluorine F Oxygen O
Arsenic As Gold Au Phosphorus P
Barium Ba Hydrogen H Platinum Pt
Bismuth Bi Iodine I Potassium K
Bromine Br Iron Fe Silicon Si
Calcium Ca Lead Pb Silver Ag
Carbon C Magnesium Mg Sodium Na
Chlorine Cl Manganese Mn Sulfur S
Chromium Cr Mercury Hg Tin Sn
Cobalt Co Nickel Ni Tungsten W
Copper Cu Nitrogen N Zinc Zn

Co CO

Mostly English, but also Latin Fe(ferrum), Na(Natrium), etc.

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 Compounds
 A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two
or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.

Water formation:

 Compounds can only be separated into their pure

components (elements) by chemical means.

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Classifications of Matter

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A Comparison: The Three States of Matter

Distance and motion!

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The Three States of Matter: Effect of a
Gas Burner on a Block of Ice and Water

Draw the conversion figure of solid, liquid, gas conversion.

Density of water-ice.
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 Types of Changes
A physical change does not alter the composition or identity
of a substance. Physical properties: Color, melting-boiling
point, etc.
ice melting sugar dissolving
in water

A chemical change alters the

composition or identity of the
substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in air

to form water
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 Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon how much
matter is being considered.
• mass

• length Additive!
• volume

An intensive property of a material

does not depend upon how much
matter is being considered.
• density Not additive!
• temperature

• color
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 International System of Units (SI)
Macroscopic properties (length, volume, mass, temperature, etc.);
determined directly.
Microscopic properties (atomic or molecular scale); indirect methods.
Appropriate UNIT for a measured quantity!

Table 1.2 SI Base Units

Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second s
Electrical current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

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 Prefixes Used with SI Units

Table 1.3 Prefixes Used with SI Units

Prefix Symbol Meaning Example
peta - P 1,000,000,000,000,000, or 1015 1 petameter (Pm) =1 1015 m
tera - T 1,000,000,000,000, or 1012 1 terameter ( Tm) =1 1012 m
giga - G 1,000,000,000, or 10 9 1 gigameter (Gm) =1 109 m
mega - M 1,000,000, or 106 1 megameter (Mm) =110 6 m
kilo - K 1,000, or 103 1 kilometer (km) =110 3 m
deci - d 1 10, or 10 –1 1 decimeter ( dm) = 0.1m
centi - c 1 100, or 10 –2 1 centimeter ( cm) = 0.01m
milli - m 1 1,000, or 10 –3 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001m
micro - μ 1 1000,000, or 10 –6 1 micrometer (μm) =1 10 – 6 m
nano - n 1 1,000,000,000, or 10 – 9 1 nanometer (nm) =1 10 – 9 m
pico - p 1 1,000,000,000,000, or 10 –12 1 picometer ( pm) =1 10 –12 m
femto - f 1 1,000,000,000,000,000, or 10 –15 1 femtometer ( fm) =1 10 –15 m
atto - a 1 1,000,000,000,000,000,000, or 10 –18 1 attometer ( am) =1 10 –18 m

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 Mass and Weight
Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass

mass – measure of the quantity of matter. Constant!

SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)

1 kg = 1000 g = 1 103 g

weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = g × mass 10 kg bar

on earth, g ~ 9.8 m/s2 10 kg on earth
on moon, g ~ 1.6 m/s2 10 kg on moon

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 Volume
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter m3 
3
1 cm = 1 10
3
( ) –2
m = 1 10 – 6 m3
3
1 dm3
= (1 10 m) –1
= 1 10 – 3 m3
1L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 =1 dm3

13mL = 1 cm3
1 cm = 1 mL
1 dm3 = 1 L

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 Density
Density is the ratio of mass to volume.

SI derived unit for density is kg/m3

Usually T ↑ d ↓

1g cm3 =1g mL = 1000 kg m3

mass
density =
volume

m
d=
V
© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-22
Densities of Some Substances
Table 1.4 Densities of Some Substances at 25°C
Substance Density (g/cm3)
Air* 0.001
Ethanol 0.79
Water 1.00
Graphite 2.2
Table salt 2.2
Aluminum 2.70
Diamond 3.5
Iron 7.9
Lead 11.3
Mercury 13.6
Gold 19.3
Osmium** 22.6

*Measured at 1 atmosphere.

**Osmium (Os) is the densest element known!

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 Example 1.1
Gold is a precious metal that is chemically unreactive. It is used
mainly in jewelry, dentistry, and electronic devices.

A piece of gold ingot with a mass of 301 g has a volume of 15.6 cm3 .
Calculate the density of gold.
Solution

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 Example 1.2

The density of mercury, the only metal that is a liquid at room

temperature, is 13.6 g / mL.
Calculate the mass of 5.50 mL of the liquid.
Solution

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 A Comparison of Temperature Scales
Conversion Formulas:

The Kelvin is the SI base unit of temperature. It is the absolute temperature scale.
0 K is the lowest temperature that can be attained theoretically!
-273.15°C is the ‘Absolute Zero’!
© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-26
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 Example 1.3
a) Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in
electronic circuits. A certain solder has a melting point of
224°C. What is its melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?
Solution

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b) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements
at - 452°F. Convert this temperature to degrees
Celsius.
Solution

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c) Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room
temperature, melts at -38.9°C. Convert its melting
point to kelvins.

Solution

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 Scientific Notation (1 of 3)
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022  1023

The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:

0.0000000000000000000000199

1.99  10 – 23

N  10n

Where, N represents “N is a number between 1 and 10” and n

represents “n is a positive or negative integer.”
© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-30
 Scientific Notation (2 of 3)

The Decimal Point Addition or Subtraction

1. Write each quantity with the
same exponent n
2. Combine N1 and N2
3. The exponent, n, remains the
same

© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-31

 Scientific Notation (3 of 3)

Multiplication Division
1. Multiply N1 and N2 1. Divide N1 and N2
2. Add exponents n1 and n2 2. Subtract exponents
n1 and n2

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 Significant Figures (1 of 4)
 Uncertainty, decimal separator, thousand separator…

1) Any digit that is not zero is significant.

2) Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.

3) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant.

4) If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the decimal
point are significant.
If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end and
in the middle of the number are significant.

5) For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the scientific

notation is used: e.g. 400 (trailing zeros).

© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-33

 Significant Figures (2 of 4)
Addition or Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than any of the original numbers.

The Rounding-Off Process

 If the digit < 5, then simply drop it!
 If the digit  5, then add 1 to preceding digit!

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 Significant Figures (3 of 4)
Multiplication or Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original
number that has the smallest number of significant figures.

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 Significant Figures (4 of 4)
Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are considered to
have an infinite number of significant figures.

 The average of three measured lengths: 6.64, 6.68 and 6.70?

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 Example 1.4
Determine the number of significant figures in the following
measurements:
( a) 478 cm
(b) 6.01 g
( c) 0.825 m
( d) 0.043 kg
( e) 1.310  10 22
atoms
( f ) 7000mL

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 Example 1.5
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct
number of significant figures:
a) 11,254.1 g + 0.1983 g
b) 66.59 L – 3.113 L
c) 8.16 m  5.1355
d) 0.0154 kg ÷ 88.3 mL
e) 2.64  103 cm + 3.27  102 cm

© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-38

 Accuracy versus Precision
Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true value

Precision – how close a set of measurements are to each other

precise not accurate

accurate
& but &
not accurate not precise
precise
 Highly accurate measurements are usually precise, too!
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Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving
Problems
1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed

2. Carry units through calculation

3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the
problem was solved correctly.

given quantity × conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit  = desired unit
given unit

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-41
 Example 1.6

A person’s average daily intake of glucose (a form of sugar)

is 0.0833 pound (lb). What is this mass in milligrams (mg)?
(1 lb = 453.6 g.)

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 Example 1.7
An average adult has 5.2 L of blood. What is the volume
of blood in m3?

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 Example 1.8
Liquid nitrogen is obtained from liquefied air and is used to
prepare frozen goods and in low-temperature research. The
density of the liquid at its boiling point (-196°C or 77K) is 0.808
g/cm3. Convert the density to units of kg/m3.

liquid nitrogen

© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-44

 Example 1.9
A modern pencil “lead” is actually composed primarily of graphite,
a form of carbon. Estimate the mass of the graphite core in a
standard No. 2 pencil before it is sharpened.

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Appendix of Image Long Descriptions

© McGraw-Hill Education.
The Study of Chemistry Long Description

A pile of rusted nails, for instance, can be explained by the

reaction of iron atoms (nails) with oxygen molecules in the
air to form iron(III) oxide (rust). In this example, the rusted
nails are the macroscopic view, and the reaction of iron
atoms and oxygen molecules to form the ionic compound
iron(III) oxide is the microscopic view.

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 The Scientific Method (1 of 2) Long
Description

This hypothesis is then tested by developing and carrying

out experiments. Based on the results of these
experiments, the hypothesis is revised to account for
experimental evidence. Further observations must be
consistent with the hypothesis - otherwise the hypothesis
must be revised.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-48
Classification of Matter Long Description
Mixtures can be further classified as either homogeneous or
heterogeneous. Homogeneous mixtures, such as an NaCl
solution, are uniform throughout, while heterogeneous mixtures,
such as iron filings in sand, are not uniform throughout.
Substances can be further classified as compounds or
elements, depending on the composition of the substance. A
compound has more than one type of element, such as water,
which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. An element
contains only one type of atom, such as oxygen gas which only
contains oxygen atoms.

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A Comparison: The Three States of Matter
Long Description

Liquid matter assumes the shape of part of its container,

and the atoms are less organized than in the solid phase.
In the liquid phase, the atoms can move past each other.
Gaseous matter assumes the shape and volume of its
container, and the atoms are highly disorganized and
move rapidly throughout the container.

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The Three States of Matter: Effect of a
Gas Burner on a Block of Ice Long
Description
Solid water (ice) melts and becomes liquid water when it is
heated by the poker. At the surface of the ice, water vapor
(steam) is present because so much heat has been added.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-51
 Volume Long Description

The volume of the small cube is 1 cubic centimeter, which

is the same as 1 mL. The volume of the large cube is
1000 cubic centimeters, which is the same as 1000 mL or
1 L.

Volume: The amount of space that a substance or object

occupies, or that is enclosed within a container.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-52
A Comparison of Temperature Scales
Long Description
The first shows the Kelvin scale, the second the Celsius
scale, and the third the Fahrenheit scale. The freezing
temperature of water is 273 K, 100°C, and 32°F. Room
temperature is measured as 298 K, 25°C, and 77°C.
Body temperature is commonly 310 K, 37°C, and 98.6°F.
The boiling point of water is 373 K, 100°C, and 212°F.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 1-53
 Accuracy versus Precision Long
Description
The second has a cluster of five darts in the corner of the
board, so the cluster is precise but not accurate, as the
darts are not clustered around the center of the board.
The third has five darts randomly about the board, and the
darts are neither precise nor accurate.

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 End of Presentation

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No
reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 1-55