CEWHRD330

PROPOSED BACOLOD TO SILAY RAILROAD PROJECT

MEMBERS:
GAYONDATO, JOHN MICHAEL
GELASAN, KRISCHAN S.
GO PING, ERIKA GRACE VALDEZ
GOLEZ, JANU DEMAISIP
GRAJO, BEETHOVEN III SURDILLA
GUADALUPE, CHERYLL ANNE MORALES

ADVISER: ENGR.DANIEL COLMENARES

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….3
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILROAD……………………………………………...4
1.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………….....
1.1 DEFINITIONS ………………………………………………….....
2.0 DESIGN CODES, MANUALS, STANDARDS …………………….
AND SPECIFICATIONS……………………………………………
2.1 RAILROAD PLANNING ………………………………………
2.2 DESIGN LOADING ………………………………………………….
2.3 DESIGN SPEED …………………………………………………..
3.0 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT……………………………………….
3.1 GENERAL …………………………………………………..............
3.2 TRAIN LENGTHS……………………………………………………
3.3 TRACK CENTERS……………………………………………………
3.4 TANGENT ALIGNMENT…………………………………………
3.5 HORIZONTAL CURVED ALIGNMENT……………………………
3.5.1 CIRCULAR CURVES……………………………………………………….
3.5.2 SUPERELEVATION ………………………………………………………
3.5.3 SPIRAL TRANSITION CURVES …………………………………...
3.5.4 REVERSE CURVES………………………………………………………..
4.0 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT ………………………………………….
4.1 GENERAL …………………………………………………………….
4.2 GRADES ………………………………………………………………
4.3 VERTICAL CURVATURE …………………………………………..
5.0 CLEARANCES ………………………………………………………..
5.1 GENERAL …………………………………………………………….
5.2 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCES ……………………………………..
5.2.1 TRACK CENTERS ……………………………………………………
5.3 OTHER CLEARANCES …………………………………………….
5.4 VERTICAL CLEARANCES (OVERHEAD) ………………………..
5.5 VERTICAL CLEARANCES (UNDERGROUND UTILITIES) ……..
6.0 ROADBED SECTION ……………………………………………….
7.0 WALKWAYS …………………………………………………………
8.0 TURNOUTS ……………………………………………………………

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR RAILROAD……………………………………………

9.0 GRADIENT…………………………………………………………….
9.1 TYPES POF GRADIENT………………………………………………
9.2 GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES……………………………
9.3 DEGREE OF CURVE…………………………………………………..
9.4 SUPER ELEVATION ON CURVES (Cant)…………………………….
10.0 SPEEDS……………………………………………………………………
11.0 CANT DEFICIENCY……………………………………………………………
12.0 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE………………………………………………………..
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STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR RAILROAD……………………………………………………
13.0 INTRODUCTION TO RAILROAD STRUCTURES……………………………
14.0 STRUCTURE DESIGN CONSIDERATION…………………………………….
14.1 SUPERSTRUCTURE ……………………………………………………………
14.2 BALLAST FLOOR …………………………………………………………….
14.3 DEAD LOAD…………………………………………………………………
14.4 LIVE LOAD …………………………………………………………………….
14.5 LIVE LOAD DISTRIBUTION…………………………………………………
14.6 TRANVERSE STEEL BEAMS WITHOUT STRINGERS …………………….
14.7 STABILITY……………………………………………………..
`14.8 LIVE LOAD IMPACT………………………………………………………
14.9 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES……………….
14.10 LATERAL FORCES FROM EQUIPMENT………………………………..
14.11 LONGITUDINAL FORCES ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES…………….
14.12 WIND LOADING ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES……………………….
14.13 LOADS FROM CONTINUOUS WELDED RAILS ……………………….
14.14 FATIGUE STRESSES ON STRUCTURES ……………………………….
14.15 LIVE LOAD DEFLECTION………………………………………………
14.16 LOADING COMBINATIONS ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES ………..
14.17 BASIC ALLOWABLE SSTRESSES FOR STRUCTURES ………………
14.18 LENGTH OF COVER PLATES AND MOMENT DIAGRAM ………….
14.19 CHARPY V-NOTCH IMPACT REQUIREMENTS ………………………
14.20 FRACTURE CONTROL PLAN FOR FRACTURE ………………………
CRITICAL MEMBERS
14.21 WATERPROOFING RAILROAD STRUCTURES ………………………

FAILURES, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF

RAILROAD AS A TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES
15.0 RAILROAD FAILURES………………………………………………….
16.0 RAILROAD MAINTENANCE…………………………………………..
17.0 RAILROAD REHABILITATION……………………………………

RAILROAD PROJECT
PROPOSED BACOLOD TO SILAY RAILROAD PROJECT……………………..
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….

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 INTRODUCTION TO RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION

Railroad transportation has a strong economic rationale, making it a competitive modal

option for the mobility of passengers and freight. The ability of trains to haul large
quantities of freight and significant numbers of passengers over long distances is its
primary asset. Its main drawback is flexibility as traffic must follow fixed routes, and
transshipment must take place at terminals. Once the cars have been assembled, or the
passengers have boarded, trains can offer a high capacity service at a reasonable speed,
which is significant when high-speed systems are involved. It was this feature that led to
the role of the railroad in opening the interior of the continents in the 19th century and
remains its primary asset.
Route choice is important for engineering and marketing reasons. Engineers balance the
costs related to distance, curvature, grades, tunnels, and bridges. Marketing concerns
include the ability to serve current and potential markets, as well as location relative to
competing lines and modes. Train size and speed are limited by engineering factors
related to safety and cost. The main consideration is that the train stays on the track,
despite dynamic interaction between the train and the track. Rail and wheels are designed
to minimize energy dissipation at the wheel/rail interface and to provide strength to resist
the forces of the operating environment. Engineering departments ensure that track
geometry and strength are adequate by selecting, installing, inspecting, maintaining, and
eventually replacing track components.

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 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILROAD

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The basic requirement for railroad geometric design shall be to provide economical and
efficient transportation while maintaining adequate factors of safety with respect to
overall operation, maintenance, and rolling stock stability.
The criteria presented herein relating to the design of operational components emphasizes
safety and follows accepted engineering practices used on operating, Class 1 railroads.
The criteria relating to other elements of design for work items necessitated by railroad
system construction, such as miscellaneous utility work, are based on the latest
specifications and practices of the agencies having jurisdiction.
Specific Design Criteria may be waived only when unique circumstances warrant and
then only with permission of the Chief Harbor Engineer.

1.1 DEFINITIONS
All definitions used in this Railroad Design Criteria document are in accordance with
those used in AREMA except as modified herein:
Engineer: The Chief Harbor Engineer or his authorized
representative
Industrial Yard Storage Tracks outside of terminals
Track:
Industrial Service Storage and working tracks within terminals
Track:
Mainline Track: A railroad feeder track beginning at the Equilon
Curve track split north of the Dominguez Channel
extending to POLB Terminals, Railyards, and spur
tracks under the jurisdiction of the PHL.

Spur Track: A track diverting from the Mainline Track.

2.0 DESIGN CODES, MANUALS, STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS

The railroad design shall meet all applicable parts of the State of California general laws,
CPUC requirements, FRA safety requirements, and the specific requirements of this
section.
Unless specifically noted otherwise in this criteria, the latest edition of the code,
regulation, and standard that is applicable at the time the design is initiated shall be used.
If a new edition or amendment to a code, regulation, or standard is issued before the

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 design is completed, the design shall conform to the new requirements to the extent
approved or required by the agency enforcing the code, regulation, or standard changed.
The guidelines/design criteria assembled in this document are based on industry
standards, governmental regulations, local practices, and railroad standards. The
following publications and documents were used as references:
¤ California Public Utility Commission (CPUC) General Orders (GO) (see below)
¤ Burlington Northern &, Santa Fe Standards (BNSF)
¤ Union Pacific Railroad Standards (UPRR)
¤ American Railway Engineering Maintenance Association Standards (AREMA)
¤ Federal Railroad Association Safety Standards (FRA)
¤ Standard Specifications for Public Works Construction (SSPWC) The specific CPUC
General Orders that shall govern are:

¤ CPUC GO No. 26 – D
REGULATIONS GOVERNING CLEARANCES ON RAILROADS AND STREET
RAILROADS WITH REFERENCE TO SIDE AND OVERHEAD STRUCTURES,
PARALLEL TRACKS, CROSSINGS OF PUBLIC ROADS, HIGHWAYS AND
STREETS.
¤ CPUC GO No. 75 – C
REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE PROTECTION OF CROSSINGS AT GRADE
OF,
HIGHWAYS AND STREETS WITH RAILROADS IN THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA

¤ CPUC GO No. 118

REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE CONSTRUCTION, RECONSTRUCTION,
MAINTENANCE OF WALKWAYS ADJACENT TO RAILROAD TRACKAGE
AND THE CONTROL OF VEGETATION ADJACENT THERETO.
All new and existing tracks shall be constructed or upgraded to meet the most current
version of these orders and standards.

2.1 RAILROAD PLANNING

During the preparation of plans and specifications for new rail projects within the POLB,
the applicable local railroads such as the BNSF, UPRR and PHL shall be a part of the
planning and design process.
2.2 DESIGN LOADING
The Design of Track Systems shall be based on a Cooper E-80 loading in accordance
with AREMA. Associated Track layouts shall include loops for train engine power
flexibility to enter and exit to reduce push/pull movements. A train shall use five (5) road
power engines for all movements unless directed otherwise by the POLB.

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2.3 DESIGN SPEED
The Design Speed for main line track alignments shall be twenty five (25) miles per hour
and ten (10) miles per hour for terminals.

3.0 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

3.1 GENERAL
The parameters for the design of horizontal alignments are established in accordance with
the recommendations of the Manual for Railway Engineering, published by the American
Railway Engineering and Maintenance Association (AREMA), latest edition.
The horizontal alignment of mainline tracks shall consist of tangents joined to circular
curves by transition spirals. Spiral curves shall not be used in yards and service areas.
¤ The desirable operating speeds for Port of Long Beach rail projects shall be as follows:
¤ Mainline Tracks : 25 mph
¤ Intermodal and Yard Tracks : 10 mph
3.2 TRAIN LENGTHS
Three hundred nine feet (309’) per double stack container rail car Five platforms equal
one (1) double stack container railcar.
Twenty five (25) double stack container railcars is the length of a unit train.
Eight thousand one hundred (8,100) feet is the maximum length of a unit train with five
(5) engines (road power).
Bulk train data varies. Although a typical bulk car length such as for coal is
approximately sixty three (63) feet from coupler to coupler.
3.3 TRACK CENTERS
Track centers (Distance between the centerlines of two adjacent tracks) for mainline, lead
tracks, tangent tracks and tracks parallel to mainline tracks shall be a minimum of fifteen
(15) feet.

Track centers for yard tracks shall be a minimum of fourteen (14) feet with fifteen (15)
feet preferred.

Track centers for tracks parallel to ladder tracks shall be a minimum of twenty (20) feet.
Curves over a six (6) degree of curve (Dc) shall have their track centers increased two (2)
inches per degree of curve.

3.4 TANGENT ALIGNMENT

The desired minimum tangent length (L) between curves or spirals shall be determined by
the following formula:

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 L = 3V

where :
L = minimum tangent length, feet
V = design speed through the curve, mph
The minimum tangent length between curves or spirals shall be one hundred (100) feet.
All turnouts shall be located on tangent track sections.
3.5 HORIZONTAL CURVED ALIGNMENT
3.5.1 CIRCULAR CURVES
Circular curves shall be defined by the ARC definition of curvature and specified by their
radii and/or degree of curvature.
Horizontal curvature shall be a maximum of seven (7) degrees thrity (30) minutes with a
minimum radius of seven hundred sixty four and forty nine one hundredths (764,49) feet
on mainline tracks.
Horizontal curvature shall be a maximum of ten (10) degrees zero (0) minutes (Minimum
radius of 573.69 feet) on intermodal container stack train storage yard tracks, intermodal
container stack train loading/unloading tracks and mainline yard tracks.
Special approval for lessor radii must be obtained from the Chief Harbor Engineer.
No turnouts shall be located within a horizontal curve.
Horizontal curvature shall be a maximum of twelve (12) degrees thirty (30) minutes
(Minimum radius of 459.28 feet) on industrial yard tracks and individual service tracks.
The desired minimum length (L) of a superelevated circular curve shall be determined by
the formula:
L = 3V
whe L = minimum length
re: of curve, feet
V = design speed
through curve, mph

3.5.2 SUPERELEVATION
a. In the design of horizontal alignments, the allowable superelevation throughout curved
sections shall be determined by considering actual speeds and allowable Eu.
Superelevation is defined as the elevation difference in inches between the high rail and
low rail.
b. Superelevation shall be determined from the following formula:
Ea + Eu = 3.839 V²/R
where :
V = design speed through the curve, mph

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 R = Radius of curve, feet
c. Values for actual superelevation (Ea) shall be rounded to the nearest one quarter (¼)
inch.
d. Actual superelevation (Ea) shall be attained and removed linearly throughout the full
length of the spiral transition curve by raising the outside rail while maintaining the top
of the inside rail at profile grade.
e. Where spirals are not possible, Ea shall be attained linearly over a length equal to
1.5EaV, rounded to the next ten (10) feet, and divided equally between the tangent and
curve.
f. Yard, intermodal, and secondary tracks and special trackwork shall not be superelevated.
Mainline tracks shall have a maximum super-elevation of two and three-quarters (2.75)
inches with and one and one-half (1.5) inch of unbalance. No super-elevation is
preferred.

3.5.3 SPIRAL TRANSITION CURVES

a. Spiral transition curves shall be used in mainline tracks to connect tangents to
circular curves or to connect compound circular curves. The spiral to be used
shall be the clothoid spiral.
b. No spirals shall be required for curves with radii of ten thousand (10,000) feet
or greater.
c. The desired minimum length of spiral (Ls) shall be the greater of the lengths
as determined by the following formulae, rounded to the nearest ten (10) feet,
but not less than one hundred (100) feet:
Ls = 31 Ea
Ls = 1.17 EaV
Ls = 1.22 EuV
Where Ea and Eu are in inches; V in mph.

3.5.4 REVERSE CURVES

The minimum tangent length between reversing curves is one hundred (100) feet.
Two hundred (200) feet is preferred on main line tracks.
4.0 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
4.1 GENERAL
The profile grade shall represent the elevation of the top of the low rail.
In areas of curved alignment where profile is given for one track only, the gradients of
the second track shall be adjusted uniformly to accommodate the differences in
lengths throughout the curves.
Turnouts and switches shall not be placed within a vertical curve.

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4.2 GRADES
4.2.1 All Tracks
a. For standard track installation, the maximum desired sustained grade for
mainline tracks and sidings shall be one (1.0) percent. The use of greater
profile grades must be approved by the Chief Harbor’s Engineer.
b. For intermodal container stack train storage yards, intermodal container stack
train loading/unloading tracks, and mainline yard tracks, the maximum grade
is one –quarter of one percent (0.25%)
c. Profile grades can be a maximum of two percent (2%) for short lengths with
approval of the Chief Harbor’s Engineer.
d. Loading yard tracks, storage yard tracks, and sidings to mainline tracks shall
be at elevations lower than the elevation of the mainline track such that
runaway yard cars cannot roll onto the mainline.
It is desirable that through storage tracks have a sag in the middle of their profile to
prevent rail cars from rolling to either end.

4.3 VERTICAL CURVATURE

4.3.1 All Tracks
All changes in grade shall be connected by a parabolic vertical curve as defined by
AREMA. For main line tracks the minimum length of vertical curve shall be
determined by the following formula:

L = 100(G2-G1)/2a
where :
(G2-G1) = Algebraic difference in grades
2a = rates of change of grade (per cent per station)
L = length of vertical curve in feet

b. The minimum length of vertical curve shall be thirty three (33) x D feet where D
equals the difference in grades in percent. In no case shall the length of vertical
curve be less than one hundred (100) feet.
c. Vertical curves shall not be required for grade intersections where the algebraic
difference in grade is less than one tenth (0.1) percent.
d. The maximum rate of chance for a vertical curve shall be limited to two tenths
(0.20) per foot per one hundred (100) feet in SAG curves and four tenths (0.40)
foot per one hundred (100) feet on summit curves.
e. The design of vertical curves shall ensure that there is no “Bottoming-Out” of
extended length rail cars on grade summits.

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 f. There shall be no turnouts within a vertical curve.

5.0 CLEARANCES
5.1 GENERAL
Notwithstanding any of the following criteria, all designs must comply with the
regulations outlined in the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) General Order
26-D.

5.2 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCES

All horizontal clearances are measured from center of track. The following horizontal
clearances shall apply:

5.2.1 TRACK CENTERS

1. For mainline tracks, lead tracks and tracks parallel to mainline tracks the
centerline clearance shall be fifteen (15) feet.
2. For yard tracks, the centerline clearance shall be fourteen (14) feet with fifteen
(15) feet preferred.
3. For tracks parallel to ladder tracks, the centerline clearance shall be a minimum
of twenty (20) feet.

5.3 OTHER CLEARANCES

1. All structures, signs, posts or pipes shall have a minimum centerline clearance of
ten (10) feet with an increase of one and a half (1.5) inch per degree of curve, or
as approved by the Chief Harbor Engineer.
2. Signals and switch stands three (3) feet or less in size located between tracks shall
have a minimum centerline clearance of six (6) feet. For switch stands located on
the outside of tracks or parallel tracks shall have a centerline clearance of eight (8)
foot six (6) inches.
3. All pull boxes located within ten (10) feet of a track centerline shall be installed
flush with the track’s ties.
4. All walkways shall be located in accordance with CPUC GO No. 118.
5. All approaches within ten (10) feet of a track centerline shall have ballasted
approaches with a slope of eight (8): one (1).
5.4 VERTICAL CLEARANCES (OVERHEAD)
All vertical clearances shall be measured from top of rail (T/R).
The following minimum vertical clearance shall apply:

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 All tracks :25.0 Feet
Overhead wires up to 2.9 kv : 25.0 Feet
Overhead wires 2.9 kv to 50 kv : 27.5 Feet
Overhead wires greater than 50 kv: 32.5 Feet

At all times minimum California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) clearances shall be
maintained.
At clearance locations where superelevation is present, vertical clearances shall be
measured from the high rail.

5.5 VERTICAL CLEARANCES (UNDERGROUND UTILITIES)

1. Utility Pipeline crossings shall be designed in accordance with Section 1, Part 5 of
AREMA and as shown on the plans.
2. All utility lines under main line tracks shall be installed using a protective casing pipe.
The casing pipe may be omitted for non-pressure sewer or storm drain lines located in
branch or industrial line tracks.
3. The casing pipe and joints shall be leak proof and capable of withstanding a minimum
railway load of Cooper E-80. The steel casing shall have minimum yield strength of
35.000 PSI and have a protective coating. The annular space between the casing and
carrier pipe shall be filled with sand.
4. The casing pipe shall have a minimum inside diameter of one point eight (1.8) times
greater than the outside diameter of the carrier pipe.
5. The casing pipe length measured from the track’s center line shall be as follows:
Mainline : 14 feet + 1.5x Casing Diameter
Spur/Industry: 11 feet + 1.5x Casing Diameter
6. Utility crossings shall be designed with casings so that utility repairs can be made
without disturbing the trackage
7. Relocation and construction of utilities shall be coordinated with the affected utility
during early stages of the design process.
8. For flammable pipelines the following criteria shall be used:
a. A minimum cover of five and a half (5-½) feet measured from the base
of rail to the top of pipe shall be used.
b. Above ground markers shall be installed at both ends of the crossing.
c. Where flammable pipelines run along side rail lines, the perpendicular
distance measured from the track’s centerline to the pipeline shall not be
less than twenty five (25) feet.
d. For longitudinal pipelines, above ground markers shall be placed at four
hundred (400) foot intervals and at a change of direction.
9. For non-flammable pipelines the following criteria shall be used:
a. A minimum cover of four and a half (4-½) feet measured from the base
of rail to the top of pipe shall be used.
b. Where non-flammable pipelines run along side rail lines, the
perpendicular distance measured from the track’s centerline to the

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 pipeline shall be six (6) feet + one and one half (1.5) x (Depth in feet) or
fifteen (15) feet whichever is greater.
10. The following criteria shall be used for electrical and communication utility line
crossings:
a. A minimum cover of three (3) feet measured from the base of rail to the
top of the red slurry (two (2) sack mix) encasement shall be used for
electrical crossings.
b. A minimum cover of three (3) feet measured from the base of rail to the
top of the red slurry encasement shall be used for communication
crossings.

6.0 ROADBED SECTION

The following criteria shall apply to the track’s roadbed section:
1. Ballast Depth
a. For timber and/or concrete ties the ballast depth shall extend not less than
twelve (12) inches below bottom of tie for the full length of the tie and
shoulders.
2. Subballast Depth
a. Subballast depth shall be twelve (12) inches below ballast on mainline
tracks, intermodal container stack train storage yard tracks, intermodal
container stack train loading/unloading tracks, and mainline yard tracks.
Use as required for industrial service tracks and other yard tracks.
b. Subballast material shall conform to section 200.2.4 “Crushed
Miscellaneous Base” (CMB), per SSPWC fine gradation.
c. A geotextile filter fabric shall be placed at base of Subballast throughout
areas of all tracks including turnouts and grade crossings.
d. Subballast shall conform to AREMA Chapter 1 – Roadway and Ballast;
Part 2- Ballast; Section 2.11 – Subballast specifications for site specific
calculation of total/subballast thickness.
3. Shoulder Width
a. Ballast shoulder width shall be a minimum of twelve (12) inches beyond
the edge of the tie.
b. Ballast shoulder width shall be twelve (12) inches on mainline tracks,
intermodal container stack train storage yard tracks, mainline sidings, and
mainline yard tracks.
c. Subballast shoulder width shall be thirteen (13) feet from centerline on
mainline tracks and twelve (12) feet from centerline elsewhere.
d. Side slopes shall be two (2): One (1)

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7.0 WALKWAYS
The following criteria shall apply to walkways adjacent to tracks:
1. Walkways shall be provided for all tracks in accordance with California P.U.C.
General Order No. 118 and the Pacific Coast Marine Safety Code, latest
versions.
2. Minimum walkway width along mainline tracks other than at turnouts shall be
two (2) feet six (6) inches and shall conform to California P.U.C. Standard Nos.
1 and 2.
3. Walkways in yards and at points where industrial switching is performed shall
be per California PUC Standard No.6.
4. Walkways at power-operated turnouts shall be per California P.U.C. Standard
No.5.
5. Walkways at hand-thrown turnouts shall be per California P.U.C. Standard No.
3
Bridge walkways shall conform to California P.U.C. Standard No. 6.

8.0 TURNOUTS
Turnouts for trackwork shall comply with the standard plans of the specific railroad,
AREMA standards, or applicable POLB standard plans. All turnouts shall be sized
either Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 or 20. No other sizes shall be used unless approved by the
Chief Harbor Engineer. Specific turnout sizes and uses are as follows:
1. For all mainline tracks or the minimum cross over size shall be No.11 with nineteen and
a half (19.5) feet curved switch rails.
2. For all intermodal tracks at the minimum turnout size shall be No. 9 with sixteen and a
half (16.5) feet straight switch rails.
3. Turnouts from mainline tracks to all industry spur tracks shall be a minimum size of
No.11.
4. Turnouts for end of siding, end of double track, or entrance to an intermodal yard shall be
a minimum size of No. 9 with a preferred size of No. 11 where space is available.
5. For all industrial tracks the minimum turnout size shall be No. 8.
Turnouts and switches shall not be placed on horizontal or vertical curves, except with
approval of the Chief Harbor Engineer.

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 GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR RAILROAD

Geometric design should be such as to ensure the safe and smooth running of trains at
maximum permissible speeds, carrying the axle loads.
• Gradients in the track , including grade compensation , rising gradient , and falling
gradient.
• Curvature of the track , including horizontal and vertical curves, transition curves ,
sharpness of the curves in terms of radius and degree of the curve , cant or superelevation
on curves and etc...
• Alignment of the track including straight as well curved alignment.

9.0 GRADIENT
Any departure of track from the level is known as grade or gradient.
Purpose of providing gradient:
•To provide uniform rate of rise or fall,
•To reduce cost of earth work,
•To reach different stations at different level

9.1 TYPES OF GRADIENT

1) Ruling gradient: The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines the
max load that the locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs more
powerful locomotives, smaller train loads, lower speed, resulting in costly hauling.
The extra force P required by a locomotive to pull a train of weight W on a radient with
an angle of inclination q is:
P=W sin q
–In plains: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
–In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

2) Momentum Gradient: The gradient on a section which are steeper than the ruling
gradient acquire sufficient momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum

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 gradient. The quantity of motion of a moving body , measured as a product of its mass
and velocity.

3) Pusher gradient: As stated above a ruling gradient limits the maximum weight of a
train which can be hauled over the section by a locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so
severe on a section that it needs the help of extra engine to pull the same load than this
gradient is known as pusher of helper gradient. In Darjeeling Railways 1 in 37 pusher
gradient is used on Western Ghat BG Track.

4) Gradient at stations: at stations gradient are provided sufficient flat due to following
reason:
–To prevent movement of standing vehicle
–To prevent additional resistance due to grade.
On Indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400 in station yards.

9.2 GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES

If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the track will be
increased this curve. In order to avoid resistance beyond the allowable limits, the
gradients are reduced on curves. The reduction in gradient is known as grade
compensation for curves.
•BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve
•MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
•NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve

9.3 DEGREE OF CURVE

A curve is defined by its degree or radius. The degree of a curve is the angle subtended at
the center by a chord of 100 feet or 30.48m. If R is the radius of curve,
•Circumference of the curve= 2 ∏ R
•Angle subtended at the center by the circle = 360 degree
•Angle subtended by the arc of 30.48m = 1750/R
Thus, a 1 degree curve has a radius of 1750 m.

9.4 SUPERELEVATION ON CURVES (Cant)

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 Cant is defined as the difference in height between the inner and outer rails on the curve.
It is provided by gradually raising the outer rail above the inner rail level. The inner rail
is considered as the reference rail and normally is maintained at its original level. The
inner rail is known as the gradient rail.
Function of superelevation:
– Neutralizes the effect of lateral force.
– It provides better load distribution on the two rails.
– It reduces wear and tear of rails and rolling stock.
– It provides smooth running of trains and comforts to the passengers.

10.0 SPEEDS

Equilibrium speed: It is the speed at which the effect of centrifugal force is exactly
balanced by the superelevation provided. It can also be said that when the speed of a
vehicle running on a curved track is such that the resultant weight of the vehicle and the
effect of radical acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of rails and the vehicle is not
subjected to an unbalanced radical acceleration, is in equilibrium then its particular speed
is called equilibrium speed.
Maximum permissible speed: This is the highest speed which may be allowed or
permitted on a curved track taking into consideration of the radius of curvature, actual
cant, cant deficiency, cant excess and the length of the transition curve. When, the
maximum permissible speed on the curve is less than the maximum sanctioned speed of
the section of a line, permanent speed restriction become necessary on such curves.

11.0 CANT DEFICIENCY

Cant deficiency is the difference between the equilibrium cant (theoretical) necessary for
the maximum permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant provided there. As per
Indian Railways, Cant deficiency is recommended as follow:
• BG Track: 75 mm
• MG track: 50 mm

12.0 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

When a body moves on a circular curve, it has a tendency to move in a straight direction
tangential to the curve. This tendency of the body is due to the fact that the body is
subjected to a constant radial acceleration.

17
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR RAILROAD

13.0 INTRODUCTION TO RAILROAD STRUCTURES

Railroad structures encompass a wide array of construction intended to support the track
itself or house railway operations. Common examples of track carrying structures are
bridges, trestles, viaducts, culverts, scales, inspection pits, unloading pits and similar
construction. Examples of common ancillary structures are drainage structures, retaining
walls, tunnels, snow sheds, repair shops, loading docks, passenger stations and platforms,
fueling facilities, towers, catenary frames and the like.

While the design of ancillary structures for the railroad environment may introduce
considerations not found in their non-railway counterparts, these considerations are
usually well defined in the governing railway’s standards. Accordingly, this chapter will
focus primarily on track carrying structures.

When designing railway structures, the various sources of their loads must be considered,
as they would be with any other similar, non- railway structure. In addition to the dead
load of the structure itself, there are the usual live loads from the carried traffic. To these
are added the dynamic components of the traffic such as impact, centrifugal, lateral and
longitudinal forces.

Then there are the environmental considerations such as wind, snow and ice, thermal,
seismic and stream flow loads. Finally, because railway structures must perform under
heavier loads, have longer service lives, and dissimilar maintenance constraints compared
to their highway counterparts, other factors, including fatigue and maintenance issues,
tend to influence railroad structure design more than roadway structures.

Once the designer has established the first pass at the load environment for the subject
structure, the primary difference between a highway structure and a railway structure
should become obvious. In the typical railway structure, the live load dominates all of the
other design considerations. For the engineer accustomed to highway bridge design,
where the dead load of the structure itself tends to drive the design considerations, this
marks a substantial divergence from the norm. Specifically, the unacceptability of high
18
 deflections in railroad structures, maintenance concerns and fatigue considerations render
many aspects of bridge design common to the highway industry unacceptable in the
railroad environment. Chief among these are welded connections and continuous spans.

14.0 STRUCTURE DESIGN CONSIDERATION

14.1 SUPERSTRUCTURE
Methods of Design, Selection Type and Superstructure General
The preferred types of railroad structures are as follows:
 Rolled or welded girders for spans of 50 feet or less
 Bolted or welded plate girders for spans over 50 to 150 feet
 Bolted or welded trusses for spans over 150 feet
The superstructures of grade separations carrying railroad traffic are usually of beam and
girder construction. The spans are generally too short for economical use of trusses and
other factors, such as appearance, maintenance, etc., discourage their use.
Floor systems in beam and girder construction, for moderate spans, may be divided into
two general classes:
 One-way Floor System
 Two-way Floor System

The One-way floor system is always a deck structure and is particularly adaptable for
structures carrying several tracks or subject to future widening or other controls which
make a deck structure desirable. The Two-way floor system may be either a through

19
plate-girder or deck structure depending upon whether the floor beams are placed near
the bottom or the top flange of the girders. It is usually desirable to keep the depth of
structure (base of rail to low steel) at a minimum. Therefore, most underpasses with two-
way floor systems are through structures as shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1: Typical Section of Through-Girder Bridge (Two-Way Floor System)

Figure 2: Knee Brace for Through-Girder Bridge

Through girders should be laterally braced with gusset plates or knee braces with solid
webs connected to the stiffeners as shown in Figure 38.3-3. The AREMA Manual limits
the spacing of knee braces to 12 feet maximum. They also dictate that the type of braces
are to be web plates with flanges. Since knee braces support the top flanges against
buckling, smaller values of L/b (L = unsupported distance between the nearest lines of
fasteners or welds, or between the roots of rolled flanges)/ (b= flange width) produce
higher allowable fiber stresses in the top flanges.

Almost all railroad structures are usually simple spans for the following reason:

20
 Usually the maximum negative moment over the support is nearly equal to the positive
moment of the simple beam. In some combinations, the continuous beam negative
moments may be greater than the simple beam positive moment because of the
unfavorable Live Load placement in the spans. Continuity introduces complications and
it is questionable if any real saving is realized by its use.
In railroad structures, spacing of the through girders is governed by AREMA
specifications for Steel Railway Structures. The spacing should be at least 1/20 of the
span or should be adequate to insure that the girders and other structural components
provide required clearances for trains, whichever is greater. The requirement of lateral
clearance each side of track centerline for curved alignment should be as per latest
AREMA specifications. A typical girder inside elevation view is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3:
Typical Through-Girder Inside Elevation

14.2 BALLAST FLOOR

The superstructure includes the ballast floor, girders and girder bearings to the top of the
masonry. The thickness of the ballast floor shall not be less than ½ inches for steel plate
or 6 inches for reinforced or prestressed concrete. For concrete floor, thickness is
measured from top of bars or cover plate and the reinforcement is usually #4 bars at 6
inches both at top and bottom.

14.3 DEAD LOAD

Dead Load consists of weight of track rails and fastenings, ballast and ties, weight of
waterproofing, ballast plate, floor beams, etc. Most of the load carried by each girder is
transmitted to it by the floor beams as concentrated loads. Computations are simpler,
however, if the floor beam spacings are ignored and the girder is treated as if it received

21
 load from the ballast plate. Moments and shears computed with this assumption are
sufficiently accurate for design purposes because of the relatively close spacing of the
floor beams. Thus, the dead load on the girder may be considered uniformly distributed.
14.4 LIVE LOAD

The AREMA Manual recommends that design be based on Cooper E80 Live Loading as
shown in Figure . Heavier Cooper E loadings will result in directly proportional increases
in the concentrated and uniform live loadings shown in Figure 14.4.

Figure 14.4
Cooper E80 Live Loading

X = 5 ft A = 8 ft
Y = 6 ft B = 9 ft

To account for the effect of multiple tracks on a structure, the portions of full live load on
the tracks may be taken as:

Live Load vs. Number of Tracks

The selection of the tracks for these loads shall be such as will produce the greatest live
load stress in the member.
14.5 LIVE LOAD DISTRIBUTION

On open-deck structures, ties within a length of 4 feet but not more than three ties may be
assumed to support a wheel load. The live load should be considered a series of
concentrated loads, however, for the design of beams and girders. No longitudinal
distribution of wheel loads shall be assumed.
When two or more longitudinal beams per rail are properly diaphragmed in accordance
with AREMA Manual Chapter 15, and symmetrically spaced under the rail, they shall be
considered as equally loaded.

22
 For ballasted-deck structures, live load distribution is based on the assumption of
standard cross ties at least 8 feet long, about 8 inches wide, and spaced not more than 2
feet on centers, with at least 6 inches of ballast under the ties. For deck design, each axle
load should be uniformly distributed over a length of 3 feet plus the minimum distance
from bottom of tie to top of beams or girders, but not more than 5 feet or the minimum
axle spacing of the loading. In the lateral direction, the axle load should be uniformly
distributed over a width equal to the length of tie plus the minimum distance from bottom
of tie to top of beams or girders.

14.6 TRANVERSE STEEL BEAMS WITHOUT STRINGERS

For ballasted concrete decks supported by transverse steel beams without stringers, the
portion of the maximum axle load to be carried by each beam is given by:
P=1.12 AD/S
Where:
P = Load on a beam from one track
A = Axle Load
S = Axle spacing (ft)
D = Effective beam spacing (ft)
For bending moment, within the limitation that D may not exceed either axle or beam
spacing, the effective beam spacing may be computed from:

Where:
a = Beam span (ft)
H=
n = Ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete
Ib = Moment of inertia of beam (〖in〗^4)
h = Thickness of concrete deck (in)
d = Beam spacing (ft)\

For end shear, D = d

23
 The load P shall be applied as two equal concentrated loads on each beam at each rail,
equal to P/2. Lateral distribution of such loads shall not be assumed.
The value for “D” should be taken equal to “d” for structures without a concrete deck or
for structures where the concrete slab extends over less than 75% of the floor beam.
Where “d” exceeds S, P should be the maximum reaction of the axle loads with the deck
between beams acting as a simple span.

For longitudinal steel beams or girders

For ballasted decks supported on longitudinal girders, axle loads should be distributed
equally to all girders whose centroids lie within a lateral width equal to length of tie plus
twice the minimum distance from bottom of tie to top of girders. Distribution of loads for
other conditions shall be determined by a recognized method of analysis.

14.7 STABILITY

For spans and towers, stability should be investigated with live load on only one track,
the
leeward one for structures with more than one track. The live load should be 1200 plf,
without impact.

`14.8 LIVE LOAD IMPACT

AREMA Manual Chapter 15 specifies the impact forces to be used and how they are to
be
applied. Impact forces should be applied vertically and equally at top of each rail. Impact,
I, expressed as a percentage of axle loads, is given for open-deck structures by the
following equations and modified by a factor determined by the number of tracks to be
supported. For ballasted deck structures the percentage to be used shall be 90% of that
specified for open deck structures.

For rolling equipment without hammer blow (diesels, electric locomotives, tenders alone,
etc.)

For L less than 80 feet For L = 80 feet or more

For steam locomotives with hammer blow:

For beam spans, stringers, girders, floorbeams, posts of deck truss spans carrying load
from
floorbeams only, and floorbeam hangers:

24
 For L less than 100 feet: For L = 100 feet or more: For truss
spans:

Where:
RE = Either 10% of axle load or 20% of the wheel load.
L = Length in feet, center to center of supports for stringers, transverse floorbeams
without stringers, longitudinal girders and trusses (main members), or length in feet,
of the longer adjacent supported stringers, longitudinal beam, girder or truss for impact in
floor beams, floor beam hangers, subdiagonals of trusses, transverse girders and viaduct
columns.

For members receiving load from more than one track, the impact percentage shall be
applied to the live load on the number of tracks designated below.
Live Load Impact Table
Load received from two tracks
For L less than 175 ft Full impact on two tracks
For L from 175 to 225 ft Full impact on one track and a percentage of
full impact on the other as given by the
formula, 450-2 L
For L greater than 225 ft
Load received from more than two tracks
For all values of L

14.9 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES

On curves, a centrifugal force corresponding to each axle load should be applied

horizontally through a point 6 feet above the top of rail. This distance should be
measured in a vertical plane along a line that is perpendicular to and at the midpoint of a
radial line joining the tops of the rails. This force should be taken as a percentage, C, of
the specified axle load without impact.
C= 0.00117 S 2D

Where:
S = Speed (mph)
D = Degree of curve = 5729.65/R
R = Radius of curve (ft)

Preferably, the section of the stringer, girder or truss on the high side of the superelevated

25
 track should be used also for the member on the low side, if the required section of the
low-side member is smaller than that of the high-side member.

If the member on the low side is computed for the live load acting through the point of
application defined above, impact forces need not be increased. Impact forces may,
however,
be applied at a value consistent with the selected speed in which case the relief from
centrifugal force acting at this speed should also be taken into account.

14.10 LATERAL FORCES FROM EQUIPMENT

For bracing systems or for longitudinal members entirely without a bracing system, the
lateral force to provide for the effect of the nosing of equipment, such as locomotives, (in
addition to the other lateral forces specified) should be a single moving force equal to
25% of the heaviest axle load. It should be applied at top of rail. This force may act in
either lateral direction at any point of the span. On spans supporting multiple tracks, the
lateral force from only one track should be used.

The resulting stresses to be considered are axial stresses in members bracing the flanges
of stringer, beam and girder spans, axial stresses in the chords of truss spans and in
members of cross frames of such spans, and stresses from lateral bending of flanges of
longitudinal flexural members having no bracing system. The effects of lateral bending
between braced points of flanges, axial forces in flanges, vertical forces and forces
transmitted to bearings shall be disregarded.

14.11 LONGITUDINAL FORCES ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES

The longitudinal force from trains should be taken as 15% of the live load without
impact.
Where the rails are continuous (either welded or bolted joints) across the entire structure
from embankment to embankment, the effective longitudinal load shall be taken as
L/1200 (where L is the length of the structure in feet) times the load specified above
(15% of live load), but the value of L/1200 used shall not exceed 0.80.

Where rails are not continuous, but are interrupted by a moveable span, sliding rail
expansion joints or other devices, across the entire structure from embankment to
embankment, the effective longitudinal force should be taken as 15% of live load.

The effective longitudinal force should be taken on one track only. It should be
distributed to the various components of the supporting structure, taking into account
their relative
stiffnesses , where appropriate, and the type of bearings. The effective longitudinal force
should be assumed to be applied at base of rail.

14.12 WIND LOADING ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES

26
 The wind load shall be considered as a moving load acting in any horizontal direction. On
the train it shall be taken at 300 plf on the one track, applied 8 feet above the top of rail.
On the structure it shall be taken at 30 psf on the following surfaces:
 For girder spans, 1.5 times the vertical projection of the span.
 For truss spans, the vertical projection of the span plus any portion of the leeward
trusses not shielded by the floor system.
 For viaduct towers and bents, the vertical projections of all columns and tower
bracing.

The wind load on girder spans and truss spans, however, shall not be taken at less than
200 plf for the loaded chord or flange, and 150 plf for the unloaded chord or flange.
The wind load on the unloaded structure shall be assumed at 50 psf of surface as defined
in the bulleted items above.

14.13 LOADS FROM CONTINUOUS WELDED RAILS

Forces in continuous welded rail may be computed from the following equations:
I.F. = 38WT
R.F. = WDT/150
Where:
I.F. = Internal force in two rails (lb); compression for temperature rise, tension for
temperature fall.
R.F. = Radial force in two rails, (lb/ft of bridge); acting toward outside of curve for
temperature rise, toward inside for temperature fall.
W = Weight of one rail (lb/yd)
T = Temperature change (°F)
D = Degree of curvature

14.14 FATIGUE STRESSES ON STRUCTURES

The major factors governing fatigue strength are the number of stress cycles, the
magnitude of the stress range, and the type and location of constructional detail. The
number of stress cycles, N, to be considered shall be selected from Table 15-1-7 of
Chapter 15 AREMA Manual, unless traffic surveys or other considerations indicate
otherwise. The selection depends on the span length in the case of longitudinal members,
and on the number of tracks in the case of floor beams and hangers.

27
 Formulas for allowable fatigue stresses on structures recommended by AREMA are
dependent primarily on the strength of the material, the stress range, number of stress
cycles and a stress ratio R.
The stress range, SR, is defined as the algebraic difference between the maximum and
minimum calculated stress due to dead load, live load, impact load and centrifugal force.
If live load, impact load and centrifugal force result in compressive stresses and the dead
load stress is compression, fatigue need not be considered.

The type and location of the various constructional details are categorized in Table 15-1-9
and illustrated in Figure 15-1-5 AREMA Manual. The stress range for other than Fracture
Critical Members shall not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range, SRfat, listed in
Table 15-1-10.
The stress range for Fracture Critical Members shall not exceed the allowable fatigue
stress range SRfat, listed in Table 15-1-10 (see Note 2) AREMA Manual.

14.15 LIVE LOAD DEFLECTION

The deflection of the structure shall be computed for the live loading plus impact loading
condition producing the maximum bending moment at mid-span for simple spans. In this
computation, gross moment of inertia shall be used for flexural members and gross area
of members for trusses. For members with perforated cover plates, the effective area shall
be used.

The structure shall be so designed that the computed deflection shall not exceed 1/640 of
the span length, center to center of bearings for simple spans.

14.16 LOADING COMBINATIONS ON RAILROAD STRUCTURES

Every component of superstructure and substructure should be proportioned to resist all

combinations of forces applicable to the type of structure and its site. Members subject to
stresses resulting from dead load, live load, impact load and centrifugal force shall be
designed so that the maximum stresses do not exceed the basic allowable stresses of
Section 1.4, and the stress range does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range
allowed by AREMA specifications.

The basic allowable stresses of Section 1.4 shall be used in the proportioning of members
subject to stresses resulting from wind loads only, as specified in AREMA Manual,
Article 1.3.8. With the exception of floorbeam hangers, members subject to stresses from
other lateral or longitudinal forces, as well as to the dead load, live load, impact and
centrifugal forces may be proportioned for 125% of the basic allowable unit stresses,
without regard for fatigue. But the section should not be smaller than required with basic
unit stresses or allowable fatigue stresses when those lateral or longitudinal forces are not
present.
Increase in allowable stress permitted by the previous paragraph shall not be applied to
allowable stress in high strength bolts.

28
14.17 BASIC ALLOWABLE SSTRESSES FOR STRUCTURES

Design of steel railroad structures usually is based on a working stress level that is some
fraction of the minimum yield strength of the material. This value commonly is 0.55,
This value commonly is 0.55, allowing a safety factor of 1.82 against yield of the steel.
Design of steel railroad structures usually is based on a working stress level that is some
fraction of the minimum yield strength of the material. This value commonly is 0.55,
allowing a safety factor of 1.82 against yield of the steel.
Design of steel railroad structures usually is based on a working stress level that is some
fraction of the minimum yield strength of the material. This value commonly is 0.55,
allowing a safety factor of 1.82 against yield of the steel.

14.18 LENGTH OF COVER PLATES AND MOMENT DIAGRAM

The dead load moment diagram is a parabola with mid-ordinate showing the maximum
dead load moment. Determination of the exact shape of the envelope for the live load
moment involves long and tedious calculations. The procedure consists of dividing the
span into parts and finding the maximum moment at each section. The smaller the
divisions, the more accurate the shape of the curve and the more involved and tedious the
calculations.

Therefore the shape of the moment diagram of DL + LL + I is parabolic for all practical
purposes. Knowing the maximum ordinate, the designer can compute the other values
and draw the moment curve.

The resisting moment diagram can be superimposed upon actual moment diagram
described above. The theoretical end of cover plates can be determined from these
moment envelopes.

The AREMA specifications require that flange plates shall extend far enough to develop
the capacity of the plate beyond the theoretical end. This method of determining the
theoretical end of cover plates, on girders proportioned for deflection is not exact, but is
acceptable for design purposes.

14.19 CHARPY V-NOTCH IMPACT REQUIREMENTS

Recognizing the need to prevent brittle fracture failures of main load carrying structural
components, AREMA specifications have provisions for Charpy V-Notch impact testing
and the values for steel other than fracture critical members are tabulated in Table 15-1-2
in AREMA Manual.

14.20 FRACTURE CONTROL PLAN FOR FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS

For purposes of the Fracture Control Plan, Fracture Critical Members or member
components (FCM's) are defined as those tension members or tension components of
29
 members whose failure would be expected to result in collapse of the structure or
inability of the structure to perform its design function.

14.21 WATERPROOFING RAILROAD STRUCTURES

AREMA specifications on waterproofing railroad structures apply to materials and
construction methods for an impervious membrane and auxiliary components to protect
structures from harmful effects of water. Railroad structures which require waterproofing
shall be designed so that they can be waterproofed by the methods and with the materials
specified in AREMA specifications. The materials for waterproofing and the methods of
application should be such as to insure that the waterproofing will be retained by bond,
anchorage or other adequate means, in its original position as applied to the surface to be
waterproofed. The membrane shall consist of one of the following types, as described
below.
• Minimum 3/32 inch thick butyl rubber sheeting secured with an approved adhesive.
• Heavy Duty Bituthene or Protecto Wrap M400 may be used.
• Rubberized asphalt with plastic film or 4 feet x 8 feet sheets of preformed board
membrane with maximum thickness of 1⁄2 inch.

The butyl rubber sheeting, rubber membrane splicing cement and the butyl gum splicing
tape shall be in accordance with the requirements for membrane waterproofing as
specified in part 29 of Chapter 8 of the AREMA Manual. Cement for splicing rubber
membrane shall be a self- vulcanizing butyl rubber compound and shall be applied at a
minimum rate of 2 gallons/100 square feet.

30
 FAILURES, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF RAILROAD AS A
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES
15.0 RAILROAD FAILURES
A rail is said to have failed if it is considered necessary to remove it immediately from
the track on account of the defects noticed on it. The majority of rail failures originate
from the fatigue cracks caused due to alternating stresses created in the rail section on
account of the passage of loads. A rail section is normally designed to take a certain
minimum GMT of traffic, but sometimes due to reasons such as an inherent defect in the
metal, the section becomes weak at a particular point and leads to premature failure of the
rail. The types of rail failures are crushed head, transverse fissures, split head, horizontal
fissure, and square of angular breaks.
 Crushed Head - When the head gets crushed, metal flows on the head of the rail. It
is caused by the defects in manufacture, flat spots on wheels, slipping of wheels,
weak support at the rail end, etc. Skidding causes flat spots and loose fish bolts
cause weak support at the ends.
 Transverse Fissures - It is a fissure or hole in the head. It is in the form of a cross
wire crack starts inside the head and spread gradually. It is caused by poor
manufacture and excessive straining. This is very dangerous because the rail can
break without any sign.
 Split Head - The head is split into two (2) parts. If the surface of the crack appears
as smooth and dark, it is called as pipe rail. It is formed due to cavity during
manufacture or shrinkage of metal.
 Horizontal Fissure - A fissure that was developed keeps on increasing. It is the
outcome of worn fish plates or insufficient ballasts.
 Square or Angular Breaks - A rail breaks either in vertical plane or angular plane.
The possible factors which cause rail failures are as follows:
a) Inherent defects in the rail
Manufacturing defects in the rail such as faulty chemical composition, harmful
segregation, piping, seams, laps, and guide marks.
Defects due to fault of the rolling stock and abnormal traffic effects, flat spots in tyres,
engine burns, skidding of wheels, severe braking, and etc.
b) Excessive corrosion of rails
31
 Excessive corrosion in the rail generally takes place due to weather conditions, the
presence of corrosive salts such as chlorides and constant exposure of the rails to
moisture and humidity in locations near water columns, ash pits, tunnels, etc. Corrosion
normally leads to the development of cracks in regions with a high concentration of
stresses.
c) Badly maintained joints
Poor maintenance of joints such as improper packing of joint sleepers and loose fittings.
d) Defects in welding of joints
These defects arise either because of improper composition of the thermit weld metal or
because of a defective welding technique.
Improper maintenance of track Ineffective or careless maintenance of the track or delayed
renewal of the track
Derailments Damages caused to the rails during derailment.
16.0 RAILROAD MAINTENANCE
It is the overhauling of track periodically with the object of restoring it to its best possible
condition in which it can serve all the requirements of a good track. Need of Track
Maintenance
1. Due to the constant movement of heavy and high-speed trains, the packing under the
sleepers becomes loose and track geometry gets disturbed. The gauge, alignment and
longitudinal as well as cross levels of the track thus get affected adversely.
2. Due to the vibrations and impact of high-speed trains, the fittings of the track come
undone and there is heavy wear and tear of the track and its components.
3. The track an its components get worn out as a result typical climatic conditions.
Advantages of Railroad Track Maintenance
 Lifetime of track increases.
 Reduces operational costs and fuel consumption up to 20% - 30%.
 Provides safe and smooth running of trains.
 Gives pleasant ride to passengers without giving any noisy sounds.
 Higher speed of trains is achieved.
Characteristics of a Good Railroad Track
 The gauge should be correct or within the specified limits.
 There should be no difference in cross levels except on curves.
 The alignment should be straight and kink-free.
 Longitudinal levels should be uniform.
 The ballast should be adequate and the sleepers should be well packed.
 Track drainage should be good.

32
  Fittings and fastenings must be firmly fixed.

Annual Programme of Regular Track Maintenance

S.No. Period Work

1 Post monsoon attention: for Have to check everything.

about six (6) months after
end of monsoon.

2 Pre monsoon attention: for Mainly focuses on drainage.

about two (2) months prior
to break of monsoon.

3 Attention during monsoon: Mainly focuses on drainage

for about four (4) months. and also daily patrolling in
case of heavy rain.

Tools Used in Track Maintenance

a. Powrah
b. Jim Crow
c. Wooden Mallet
d. Sleeper Tongs
e. Shovel
f. Crow Bar
g. Track Lifter
h. Tampers
Different Systems of Railroad Track Maintenance

33
  Conventional System of Track Maintenance
 3-Tier System of Track Maintenance

Conventional System of Track Maintenance

1. Through Packing (Conventional Beater Packing)
The length track opened In a day should not be more than the efficient maintenance to be
done to that track at the end of the day. It consists of the following in sequence:

a) Opening of Road
 Ballasts should be opened on either sides of rail seats, depth up to 50 mm.

 They should not disturb cores under sleeper.

 The opening length on either sides is different for different gauges--for B.G
(45 cm), for M.G (35 cm), for N.G (25 cm).

 This is done with the help of shovels and powrahs.

b) Examination of Rails, Sleepers and Fasteners
 Rails should be checked for wear and tear, corrosion, cracks at rail joints and
cracks at ends.

 Sleepers condition at rail seats.

 Check for loose fastenings and fittings.
c.) Squaring of Sleepers
 Gauge variations and kinks inevitably results form sleepers getting out of
square.

 It is done by planting the crow bars firmly against the sleeper and pushing it.

d.) Slewing of Track to Correct Alignment

 It is to ensure the correct alignment of track.
 It will be checked for alignment from a distance 25-30 meters.
e.) Gauging

34
  It is to maintain uniform gauge distance.
 For B.G. 1676 mm, M.G. 1000 mm and 762 mm for N.G.
 It is done only if the sleepers are truly square.
 Because of aging and different conditions of sleeper, it is not possible to
maintain exact gauge distance.

f.) Packing of Sleepers

 It is to check whether each sleeper is fixed firmly and uniformly with the
ballast.

 It is done with respect of one fixed sleeper to others.

 Each sleeper should be packed at a time by four (4) members.
 After packing, they will be blown by a wooden mallet.
 A hollow sound will indicate defective packing.
g.) Boxing to Ballast Section and Tidying
 After all the operations done in sequence, a clean ballast should be made
with ballast forks or rakes.

 Ballast should be dressed with hemp cord of 6 mm diameter.

 Ballast should be fully filled at inadequate sections.
2. Track Maintenance by Machines
3. Measured Shovel Packing
4. Systematic Overhauling
a) Shallow screening and making up of ballast.
b) All items attended to, while going through packing.
c) Making up the cess.
5. Deep Screening of Ballast
6. Lubrication of Joints
7. Picking up Slacks
8. Using of Bio Toilets

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17.0 RAILROAD REHABILITATION
Development and rehabilitation of railway freight transportation infrastructure needs to
address several issues to be technically and economically sustainable.
1. Reconstruction and Removal of Track
New railroad beds must sustain higher loads, last longer with less frequent maintenance
cycles (economics), and ideally minimize energy consumption and generation of green
house gases from materials production and construction.
2. Thermite Welding and Profile-rail Grinding
Railroad tracks used to be joined with fish plates, metal gussets bolted across the sides of
the joints between tracks. Now they are welded into continuous ribbons of steel. But the
process is different than you might imagine; instead of using arc welders, oxy-acetylene
welders, or gas shielded welding equipment, the people doing the work are likely to use a
process called thermite welding. After the ends of the rails have been ground clean and
positioned approximately one inch apart they are encased in a hollow form and preheated
with a powerful torch. A crucible is placed over the form and filled with thermite, a
readily ignited aluminum-based powder that burns at about 4,500 degrees F. After being
lit, the thermite turns its constituent parts into molten metal, which pours into the form
below—filling the gap between the rails and welding them into a single piece of steel.
The form is removed, the excess metal is beat or chiseled away, and the joint between the
rails is ground smooth. Start to finish, the process takes maybe an hour to perform.
Modern rail grinding techniques use carefully applied grinding patterns to profile the rail
head, and thus determine where and how wheel/rail contact will occur. Computer control
has made possible this fine tuning of wheel/rail contact geometry, which reduces damage
to the rail head and thus extends in-service life.
3. Reconditioning Turnouts, Switch Points and Welding Switch Frogs
A railroad frog positioning and reconditioning table features a table in the form of a
rotating I-beam structure having an integral tube set off-center and resting in two pillow
block bearings attached to pedestal that are bolted to a concrete floor at opposite ends of
the table. One pedestal holds a worm gear reducing case that allows the table to rotate by
the turning of a 12 inch hand wheel. The bottom of the table is capable of containing
counterweights that, along with the off-center spacing of the support shaft, enable the
table to become counterbalanced when a frog is secured to the top of the table. This
counterbalance allows the table to be rotated with a minimum of effort. The size of the
weights is designed to allow ample counterbalance for a large variety of frog sizes.
Multiple pairs of ears are attached to the sides of the table integrated with stiffener
supports to provide tie-down points for creating the proper frog deflection. The table may
be configured to handle one or more frogs up to a combined total of 35 feet in length and
a combined weight of up to 18,000 pounds.

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 PROPOSED BACOLOD TO SILAY RAILROAD PROJECT

It is generally recognized that transport by rail is an important element in encouraging

economic growth and development. Improved rail links can facilitate cross-border traffic
and ease bottlenecks in established network corridors. They can also present a
competitive alternative to long-distance transport by road or air. At the same time,
transport by rail is usually more energy-efficient than other modes of transport, and
investment in rail schemes is therefore a key component of low carbon transport strategy.
The proposed Bacolod – Silay Railroad Project is a _ kilometer modern railroad that will
interconnect the fast-growing population and industrial centers in the main road of the
cities towards the proposed Bacolod – Silay railroad project network, thereby
significantly spurring economic development and shortening travel times. The alignment
will also greatly complement the narrow main road connections in the area which can
catalyze its further development and progress.
The main alignment of the proposed Bacolod – Silay Railroad Project will start at
Bacolod North Terminal, the line mainly follows the corridor of railroads, touches the
main road area of Talisay City, goes through the city of Silay which is in Silay Airport.
This paper presents a view of the current state of the monitoring condition of the site.
Currently, the specific scope of the site experiences inconveniency since there is no
administered jeepney to cater to the railroad as the main transportation service of the city.
Instead, private vehicles, taxis, and other vehicles for rent are the only transportation
accessible for the said site. Monitoring the railroad from an in-service vehicle is a
proposition that has become the main reason why the site was not convenient. The
condition of the transportation in the given site affects the site itself. The direction of the
railroad is neither complicated and congested. It might be considered as an access road
but never to be considered as accessible in terms of practicality.

The railroad is the most efficient and economical way to improve our traffic systems.
Vehicles in most of the countries are increasing as the population increases, to solve the
cramming of the roads one method is to improve the railway system of the country. It can
also useful to people who use railway transport for work, because it is fast, less traffic,
and will reflect the performance of the people at work. Most of the developed countries
rely on trains because trains move the most number of people, cargo quickly, and on
time. Traffic jams and port congestion caused by trucks transporting container vans to
and from the piers can be solved by the railroad.

The proposed project is intended for the benefit of all individuals, most especially for
travelers. The Bacolod-Silay road project is convenient for most of the people in the city
and also in rural areas all over the place. The said proposal is a big convenience to those
who want to travel outside the province since it leads to the New Bacolod-Silay

37
International Airport which is the only airport around Negros Occidental. Furthermore, it
is not solely for the airport but also for travel around the area that is covered in the
project. It can benefit the economy for the better service of goods and also the imports
and exports of both cities and the city in between. This will provide the community with
a good ground for traveling since this has the functions of a smooth and safe road and
fewer traffic schemes. It provides better access to people to reach their destinations safely
without the hassle of a bumpy road and from having too many detours. This project will
enhance the inter-connectivity and linkages through passenger and freight railroad
transport development, and will further boost tourism, trade, and commerce in the cities;
brings opportunities for the acceleration of local area development, and expansion of
local markets for more efficient movement of goods. People can also better promote
productivity and trade competitiveness to its other neighboring cities. It is deemed to
complement and integrate programs or projects that will address the lingering problem of
poor quality of road and incomplete road networks in some parts of the cities. These are
all beneficial and advantageous for the community and its people.

38
 REFERENCES

https://studylib.net/doc/18396996/i.-railroad-design-criteria

SHANMUKHA (Dec 12, 2016) https://knowledge4civil.wordpress.com/2016/12/12/geometric-

design-of-railway/

Mr Manivel M (Feb 21,2017)

https://www.slideshare.net/manivelkln/railway-engineering-geometric-design-of-track

WISCONISIN (January 2019)

https://wisconsindot.gov/dtsdManuals/strct/manuals/bridge/ch38.pdf#page26

Seongwoo Woo (January 2017)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-of-a-conventional-Charpy-V-notch-
testing_fig78_312022469

Diesel Locomotives (2009-2020) https://www.eng.dieselloc.ru/railway-engineering/rail-

failure.html#:~:text=A%20rail%20is%20said%20to,of%20the%20passage%20of%20loads.

Yah Patel (May 28,2016) https://www.slideshare.net/YashPatel61/railway-failure-and-its-type

Hari Krishna Velpula (Dec 18, 2016) https://www.slideshare.net/HariKrishnaVelpula/railway-

track-maintenance

Norther Plain Rail Companies (2017) https://www.nprail.com/track-repair-and-maintenance/

.David Frane (January 05, 2015) https://www.jlconline.com/tools/fastening-tools/thermite-

welding-railroad-track_o

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