PROLOGUE

A Civil Engineer has often to face some problematic soil such as expansive soils.
Expansive soils of Central India, commonly known as Black Cotton soils, cover
approximately one-sixth of the total area of our country. Such soils exhibit
extreme stages of consistency from very hard to very soft when saturated.
Six senses of perception: A site is to be selected by using five senses of
perception for its color, smell, shape, sound and touch.

Soil Classification based on Color: The soil has four basic colors, white, red,
yellow or black. The site with black soil should be rejected for construction.

Classification based on Smell: The soil having smell of rotten fish should be
rejected for construction.

Classification based on Shape: shape of plot can be square, rectangular,

hexagonal, octagonal or circular, but a square plot is most suitable.

Classification based on Taste: The taste of soil can be sweet, sour, bitter. The site
with soil of sweet taste is most suitable.

Classification based on Sound: The ground when tamped with wooden rammer
produces different sounds such as that produced by horse, flute, veena or drum.
The ground which produces ringing sound should be selected
 CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page No

Prologue by the guide

1 Introduction 1

2 Identification and Classification 6

3 Engineering Properties of Expansive Soils 22

4 Construction Techniques 34

5 Under-reamed Pile foundations 44

6 Stabilization of Expansive Soils 47

7 Conclusions and Suggestions 62

Bibliography 63
 LIST OF TABLES

No. Particulars Page

1.1 Morphology of a typical medium black soil

2.1 Swelling potential of soil 09

2.2 Identification criteria by U.S.B.R. 09

2.3 Characteristics of the B.C. soils 13

2.4 classification of swelling soils based on S.P. 17

2.5 Classification based on Shrinkage Index 19

2.6 Swelling Index Vs Plasticity Number 20

3.1 Locations of 16 soil samples 24

3.2 Notations used in tables 25

3.3 Properties of Black cotton soils S1-S8 26

3.4 Properties of Black cotton soils S9-S16 26

3.5 Ad.Properties of Black cotton soils S1-S8 27

3.6 Ad.Properties of Black cotton soils S9-S16 27

6.1 Permeability studies on stabilized soils (Wadgaon) 58

6.2 Permeability studies on stabilized soils (Nasik) 59

6.3 C .B. R. Test Value @ 5 mm Penetration 61

 LIST OF FIGURES

No. Particulars Page

1.1 Extent of Swelling soils of India 01
1.2 failure of canal lining 02
1.3 Toe failure due to swelling soil 02
1.4 Cracking due to lifting of floor slab or 03
partition wall
1.5 Damages to light weight building 03
2.1 Differential free swell test (DFS test) 08
2.2 Load expansion Curve 11
2.3 Typical dehydration curve for B.C. soil 12
2.4 Thermographs of clay minerals 13
2.5 Parameter for different n and CF 19
2.6 Shrinkage index Vs clay fraction 20
3.1 Site map of samples tested 24
3.2 Constant Pressure Method 28
3.3 Constant Volume method 29
3.4 Pressure Vs Volume Change curve 30
4.1 The pier and belled footing 37
4.2 Structural floor system 38
4.3 Flexible waterproof apron 42
5.1 Construction Stages 45
5.2 Measurement of bulb 45
5.3 Details of under-reamed pile 45
5.4 Boring in progress 46
5.5 Pullout of hand auger 46
5.6 Reinforcement details 46
5.7 Standard dimensions 46
SYNOPSIS

In India the expansive soils cover approximately 20 percent of the total land
area. These expansive soils are known by various local names such as Black
cotton soils.

An attempt has been made to compile information from various text books,
technical papers, bulletins and codes of practices.

Chapter II describes identification and classification of expansive soils. In

addition to simple tests some specialized tests such as Differential thermal
analysis (DTA) are discussed. Classification systems suggested by various
agencies are also included in this chapter.

Chapter III describes the physical and engineering properties of expansive soils.
Various theories of swelling, measurement techniques and factors affecting
swelling -shrinkage of soils are also described briefly.

Chapter IV describes various construction techniques for sub-structures in

expansive soils. Remedial measures for damaged structures are also discussed.

Chapter V deals with under-reamed pile foundations in details.

Various stabilization methods for pavements on expansive soils are discussed in

chapter VI, Inorganic additives such as Lime, Cement fly-ash and also organic
additives for sub-grade stabilization are discussed in this chapter.

Based on the limited review of the available literature on expansive soils,

suggestions for further studies are made.
INTRODUCTION

The definition of expansive soil may be stated as follows. “Expansive soils are
those soils which swell considerably on absorption of water and shrink on
removal of water. The expansive soil has considerable strength in dry state, but
the strength goes on reducing on absorption of water. The soil exerts considerable
pressure on foundations during swelling.

Expansive soils are found in some regions of India and many other countries.
These soils pose major foundation problems, causing damage to the super
structure if proper precautions have not been taken.

The expansive soils, with their expanding lattice structure and resulting capacity for
wide ranges in water contents, can be particularly troublesome.

Fig.1.1-Extent of swelling soils of India

Settlement due to shrinkage and heave due to swelling causes structural

instability. This problem is magnified in hydraulic structures.

The amount of volume change in expansive soil is related to initial dry density
and water content, amount of clay fraction and type of clay minerals. Fig.1.2
shows failure of concrete canal lining due to swelling of soil.
 Fig.1.2 -failure of canal lining due to swelling of soil

Fig.1.2 shows a typical bank failure caused by deep shrinkage cracks at the top
of the slope and loss of the strength at the slope toe from expansion under light
loading with resulting increased water content. Such heave and stability failures
are not limited to hydraulic structures alone. For instance highway pavements
and building footings may displace by seasonal or other moisture changes due
to desiccation by tree roots.

Fig. 1.5 –Damages to light weight building

The clay under the inside edge of the footing gaining moisture and expands
while the clay under the exterior edge remains dry and compressed. This tilting
is sometimes aided, and sometimes caused by lateral swelling of
compartmented clay fill. Soils are originated from rock due physical and
chemical disintegration processes and deposited due to wind, ice, gravity and
water.

The black cotton soils are grouped under tropical black earths of the great soil
group of the generic classification. The heavier black soils are called black
cotton soils because of their suitability to grow cotton. The black color is
variously assigned to the presence of humus, organic iron and aluminum
compounds etc. These soils cover the Deccan plateau covering entire
Maharashtra state, South Gujarat, central and western Madhya Pradesh,
Southern part of Andhra and Orissa states. In western half of the Deccan plateau
the black soils rests on trap or Basalt rock, while in the eastern part these soils
rest on granite of gneisses.

The Deccan Plateau is an undulating country with hills and dales. Accordingly
depending upon the situation along the slopes, the black soils are shallow,
medium or deep. They are brown chestnut and black in color, light, medium or
heavy in texture respectively. Along the slopes of Ghats, the soils are coarse and
gravelly. In the bases of hills and along the river valleys, the black soils are
often 20 ft deep.

The shallow black soils are light black in color, coarse in texture and often
eroded. These are usually of low fertility. The deep and heavy black soils are
highly clayey and unworkable during rainy season. The clayey soils in the lower
layer do not admit any drainage and hence the very deep black soils are unfit for
irrigation. They are workable during monsoon are therefore.

Mostly used for rabbi crops only. The medium black soils are only 1.5 to 3 feet
deep and are rich in lime and lime nodules. The subsoil and partially
disintegrated rock below, allow easy drainage because these medium black soils
are highly retentive of moisture and swell during rainy season. In hot weather
these shrink heavily and develop numerous cracks which may be several feet
deep. With advent of rains, the loose top soil fills up these cracks.

Black soils are usually deficient in nitrogen, organic matter and in many places,
of phosphoric acid also. These are rich in lime while potash content varies
widely. Their clay mineral consists of Montmorillonite type. In general black
soils are considered more fertile than any other Indian soils.

Owing to the undulating nature of undulating nature of Deccan plateau, the

black soils show considerable variation in morphology of their profiles.
Topography, rain fall and drainage seem to play an important role in soil
formation. In general, black soil profiles possesses approximately all the three
horizons, A, B and C. The A horizon can be divided into the darker A-1, rich in
organic matter and A-2 which is lighter in color. The deeper black soils are
highly clayey and top layer may extend to several feet. The transition from A to
B is gradual. The B horizon is alluvial horizon rich in lime. Both calcium
carbonate and calcium sulphate are found. The morphology of a typical medium
black soil is given below.
 IDENTIFICATION & CLASSIFICATION

The expansivity or the capacity of a soil to swell depends upon the type,
amount of clay minerals and exchangeable bases. There are three major
mineral groups viz, Montmorillonite, Illite and Kaolinite. For the
identification of expansive soil different field and laboratory method are
available. The expansive soils in field can be identified by the cracking
pattern of the soil in summer. The laboratory identification tests can be
grouped under
a) Simple tests and b) specialized tests.
b) The test procedures of these tests are explained below.

Simple Laboratory Tests

1. Free swell test: This test is performed by slowly pouring 10 c.c. of oven
dry soil passing 425 micron sieve, in a graduated 100 ml cylinder filled
with distilled water. The volume of settled and swelled soil is read after
24 hours from the graduations of the cylinder. The percentage of free
swell Sf is calculated as,

Sf = (Vf-Vi) x 100/Vi %

Where Vf and Vi are final and initial volumes respectively.

2. an alternative method for determining free swell value, which eliminates

the probable errors due to initial placement of dry soil in the graduated
cylinder. In this method an oven dried soil passing 425 micron sieve is
weighed and placed in the sintered funnel. The soil is first allowed to
absorb Benzene from the micro pipette attached to the lower end of the
funnel. Next it is allowed to absorb distilled water in place of benzene.
The difference between the respective volumes are water and benzene
absorbed represents the swelling which may be expressed as a percentage
of the initial weight of soil. The results obtained are independent
Of pore volume because the absorbed benzene measures pore volume and the
water measures absorption required to fill the pore volume and cause swelling.

Indian standard code of practice (I.S.2911-Part III, 1973 Appendix A) has

modified the free swell test and the modified test is known as Differential free
swell test (DFS test). In this method two samples of oven dried soil passing 425
micron sieve and weighing 10 gm each are used. One sample is poured slowly
in 50 ml graduated glass cylinder filled with kerosene (a non-polar liquid). The
other sample is poured in another 50 ml graduated cylinder filled with distilled
water. Both the cylinders are left for
24 hours and the respective volumes are noted. The DFS is calculated as below.

Fig.2.1-Differential free swell test (DFS test)

Sf = (Vw-Vk) x 100/Vk % where Vw and Vk

are final volumes of Soil in water and kerosene
respectively.

The degree of expansiveness of soil and consequent damage to the structure

with light loading may be qualitatively judged as described below.

Table 2.1- Swelling potential of soil

 D.F.S. value Degree of expansiveness
< 20 % low
20-35 % Moderate
35-50 % High
>50 % Very high

However the above test cannot be considered realistic as drying may change the
soil characteristics considerably.

1. Colloid content, plasticity index and shrinkage limit

The colloid content of soil is fraction finer than 0.001 mm to be determined

from sedimentation analysis (Hydrometer or pipette method), and is the most
active part of any soil, causing swelling. The expansiveness is proportional to
colloid content present in soil. The high plasticity index (PI) is indicative of the
capacity of soil to absorb higher amount of water when changing from plastic to
liquid state. A low value of shrinkage limit (SL) indicates the soil will start
swelling at low water content. Thus all the three Index properties are indicative
of potential volume change. United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) has
proposed identification criteria as mentioned in table 1.3 below.

Table 2.2- Identification criteria by U.S.B.R.

1-Colliod 2. Plasticity 3.Shrinkage 4- 5-Degree of
content Index (PI) % Limit (SL)% Probable Expansion
expansion
#
<15 <18 <15 <10 Low
15 -23 10-16 10-16 10-20 Medium
20- 31 25-41 7-12 20-30 High
>28 >35 >11 >30 Very high
# Probable expansion represents the percentage of total volume change of
soil from dry to saturated condition under a surcharge of
0.07 kg/sq.cm. (1 psi).
Recent studies indicate that the plasticity index of a soil alone can be used to
have an assessment of the capability of the soil for swelling accurate enough for
practical purposes.

1) Load Expansion Test

The purpose of this test is to measure total volume change from natural or
remolded condition to the air dried and saturated conditions respectively.

Two identical specimens (undisturbed or remolded) at desired density and water

content, are taken in the ring of “fixed ring type consolidometer”. The specimen
are allowed to dry in air to at least the shrinkage limit. Volume of one specimen
is measured by immersion in mercury. The other specimen is loaded in
consolidometer to a pressure intensity equivalent to that due to the anticipated
structural load and the specimen is saturated. The change in volume is recorded.

2) Dehydration Test

The test consists of recording the percentage loss in weight of clay upon heating
to higher and higher temperatures and plotting volume vs temperature. Heating
is continued till there is no loss in weight occurs. The position of the flexural
point in temperature vs loss of weight curve gives an indication of the type of
mineral percent.

Fig.2.2-Load expansion Curve

Specialized Tests

A. Differential Thermal analysis (DTA): Since the presence of certain

clay minerals is important to the engineering analysis of clayey
soils, identification of such minerals is necessary to facilitate the
engineering test results.

When a material, such as soil, is heated chemical reaction take place at different
temperatures depending upon characteristics of mineral present. These reactions
may be due to structural or phase change or loss of water content during heating
process. The chemical reactions may be endothermic or exothermic.

B. X -Ray Diffraction

The absorption, reflection and scattering of electromagnetic radiation may be

employed to yield information on the size of particles whose smallest size or
spacing is greater than the wave length of radiation. The light rays whose wave
length is in the range of 0.3 to 0.9 micron can be used to measure the size of
and spacing of suspended particles with sizes varying from 1 to 10 microns.
Classification
The classification given by U.S.B.R. (1942) and U.S. Highway research board
(1948) is not suitable for Black cotton soils of India. This soil is used for
construction purposes also. Research was done in 1953 on various soil samples
from Deccan plateau. The characteristics of the soils are shown in a table 2.3 below.
Table 2.3- characteristics of the B.C. soils
Fine sand 3 -10 %
Fraction smaller than 200 microns 70-100%
Liquid Limit 40-100%
Plasticity Index 20-60%
Shrinkage limit 9-14%
Volumetric shrinkage (wet basis) 40-50%
Hygroscopic moisture 12-13%
Exchangeable Calcium 40-80 m.e./10gm
Exchangeable Sodium+ Potassium 2-5 m.e./10gm
Base exchange capacity 40-50 m.e./10gm
pH 8-9
CaCO3 5-15%
SiO3 50-56 %
Fe2O3 8-12 %
SiO2 / Al2O3 3 to 5%
Systems of classification based on the physical properties were developed. Some of
these are given below.
 Textural classification-Grain size analysis and distribution.
 Cassagrande‟s classification- Suitability for load carrying capacity.
 U.S.P.R.A. classification-Based on L.L, P.I., mechanical analysis and group
Index.
 Civil Aeronautics Administration classification-Based of mechanical
analysis, P.I., expansivity, C.B.R. and general description of soil based on
field examination.
 Compaction classification (Based on maximum compaction attained by soil

Out of the above five classification systems the U.S.P.R.A. was approved in 1952
by Indian Road Congress. Initially in this system all the different soils were divided
in eight groups, ranging from A1 (well graded gravels or sands) to A8 (Peat).It was
based on six properties.
I. Particle size distribution.(P.S.D.)
II. Liquid Limit.(L.L.)
III. Plasticity Index.(P.I.)
IV. Shrinkage Limit.(S.L.)
V. Field moisture equivalent.
VI. Centrifuge moisture equivalent.

This system was revised in 1955. The number of groups was reduced from eight to
seven, by considering only first three properties i.e. PSD, LL and PI. All black
cotton soils of India fall under A-7 group of USPRA classification system. The
subgroups are given by group index method.
Group Index (GI) = 0.2 a+0.005 ac+ 0.01 bd
Where a= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than 35
and not exceeding 75 expressed as number (0<a<40).
b= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than 15 and
not exceeding 55 expressed as number (0<b<40).
c=portion of numerical liquid limit greater than 40% and not exceeding 60,
expressed as positive number (0<c<20)
d= portion of numerical Plasticity Index greater than 10% and not exceeding 30,
expressed as positive number (0<d<20).
Thus Group Index varies between 0 and 28
The soils collected from various states of India were found to have a Group Index of
more than 20 which is the upper limit of A-7 group. So the extension of GI is done
by fixing higher values of the fraction passing ASTM 200 sieve, L.L. and P.I. This
was done by raising the values of a, b, c and d from the following expressions.
a= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than 35 and not
exceeding 100 expressed as number (0<a<65).
b= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than 15 and
not exceeding 80 expressed as number (0<b<65).
c=portion of numerical liquid limit greater than 40% and not exceeding 85,
expressed as positive number (0<c<45)
d= portion of numerical Plasticity Index greater than 10% and not exceeding 44,
expressed as positive number (0<d<34).
“a”, “b”, “c”, “d” have the same meaning and thus the new maximum value of GI is
50.The group A-7 was subdivided as below.
Group Index GI New Sub-Group
Less than 20 A-7
20-30 A-7a
30-40 A-7b
40-50 A-7c

Bolton Seed et al (1962) tried to classify the soil depending on the swelling
potential. Because they found that if the three properties i.e. Plasticity Index (PI),
Shrinkage Limit (SL) and clay content are considered at a time, it leads to a
contradictory results. So they found a clear out relation between swelling potential
and clay content. They arrived at an equation,
S = (3.6 x 10-5)x A2.44 x c3.44

Where S=Swelling potential

A= Swell activity= (Plasticity Index)/(Clay fraction) c= % of clay fraction.
A set of curves were given for computing S for different values of PI and c. A Table
2.4 gives the classification of swelling soils based on S.P.
Table 2.4- classification of
swelling soils based on S.P.
Degree of Swelling
expansion potential %
Low 0 to 1.5
Medium 1.5 to 5
High 5 to 25
Very high greater than 25

Swelling potential was defined as “the percentage of swell under a surcharge load of
1 psi. of a soil compacted at its optimum moisture content (OMC) to a dry density
in standard AASHO compaction test. They also defined swell activity as ratio of
(LL-SL)/clay content. Thus,
Swell activity = (S.I. %) / (Clay fraction %)
With the help of swell activity they finally found out the relationship between
swelling potential and Shrinkage Index, which is as follows,
S.P. = (4.57x 10-5) (SI) 2.57 x N
Where, S.P. = swelling potential
S.I. = Shrinkage Index (rational index for volume change of clays)

N = c3.44/(c-n)2.67
Where c= clay fraction
n=Intercept on the curve (SI Vs Clay fraction) it varies from 4 to 22.
Values of N can be readily computed for different values of c and n. A set of curves
are prepared for c, n and N, from which N could be read out Ref.Fig.2.
Another classification system as shown in Table 2.5 below.

Table 2.5 -Classification based on S.I.

Classification Shrinkage Index
Low 0 -20
Medium 20 -30
High 30 -60
Very High >60

2.3.4. E.A. Sorochan (1970) experimentally proved that swelling process is

anisotropic. It is a result of textural and structural features as well as of the character
of stratification of soils. So a new term “swelling index (π). Swelling index of soil is
a ratio of porosities of soil in saturated and natural conditions.
Swelling index (π) = E/E0 where E is porosity of swollen soil and E0 is porosity of
natural soil. The swelling index (π) does not depend upon the type of structure,
method of testing, kind of wetting liquid etc. It is, on the other hand a liner
relationship with magnitude of relative expansion of soil.

Table 2.6 -Swelling Index and P.I.

Plasticity Number (P.I.)
15-19.9 20-24.9 25-29.9 30-34.9 35-39.9
Type of soil swelling index (π)
Non-Swelling 1.12 1.11 1.09 1.08 1.07
Slightly Swelling 1.12- 1.11- 1.09-1.19 1.08-1.17 1.07-1.15
1.23 1.21
Medium Swelling 1.23- 1.21- 1.19-1.28 1.17-1.25 1.15-1.22
1.39 1.30
Highly Swelling 1.39 1.30 1.28 1.25 1.22
 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

Introduction:
Experimental and theoretical studies on swelling soils have been going on since
last century, in different parts of the world as the damages caused by these soils
were catastrophic. In these studies it was found that swelling pressure plays an
important role. There are number of properties of swelling soil which are
responsible for swelling. A degree of expansion is more or less related to
shrinkage index, plasticity index colloid content. The available literature on
properties of expansive soils is presented in brief.

Theories of swelling:
It is common observation that when swelling soil comes in contact with water,
the volume of soil increases. This phenomenon is swelling. Many theories on
swelling of expansive soils have been proposed by various research workers.
According to Canoy Chapmon‟s theory of double layer, the swelling should
completely at large concentration of electrolytes. It has however observed from
laboratory experiments that there is always a residual swelling; however large
concentration of electrolytes is used. The theory of double layer as applied to
behavior of soils is derived from the analogy colloid taken in membrane
surrounded by an electrolyte. In this case mid-plane between soil particles is
imagined to function as membrane. Such an assumption is not fully justified as
soil is the mass of gel in which particles are in contact with each other having
their double layers overlapping in a complicated manner and thus mid-plane
cannot be precisely defined. Further there is hydration of ions as well as clay
particles on account of which the hydrostatic repulsive forces are not wholly
balanced by attractive forces as a result of introduction of electrolytes.

 The suction potential theory of Schcefield, also does not account for the
entire swelling as it is observed that there is residual swelling even if soil
suction is nil.
 There is further intake of moisture until the hydration of ions and soil
particles is complete and particles of soil have reoriented with respect to
forces which keep them together, viz the confining pressures and the
attraction between clay particles. Both these concepts viz the theory of
double layer depending entirely on physical chemical properties and
suction potential based on capillary only, do not take into consideration the
effect of elastic properties in relation to external forces.
 Terzaghi, K. has advanced hid concept of swelling based on elastic properties of
soils. According to him, the swelling is wholly due to elastic properties of soils,
the physic-chemical properties of soil do not play any role in the swelling
phenomenon. This is true for two reasons. Firstly, the surface behavior of charged
particles leading to Base Exchange and absorption of water molecules as dipoles,
have profound influence on swelling. Secondly the interlayer spaces in which
water molecules are retained influence swelling. The application of pressure
brings the particles closer expelling pore water. Increase of pressure expels more
water that has been absorbed. The process goes on till the inter particle spacing
has been reduced to a distance of approximately 20A. At this stage all the water
between particles is tightly held and the extraction of inter particle water by inter
granular pressure alone is thus impossible though there might be isolated areas of
mineral to mineral contact where water has been completely eliminated. Also the
inter layer water which is responsible for swelling to a large degree is not
removed by mechanical means.

It is thus evident that for any theory to explain swelling phenomenon in soils
completely, it should take into account the physic-chemical affects due hydration of
exchangeable ions and that of clay particles, the soil suction and elastic behaviour
of soils in relation to external forces. Further research of the subject should aim at
combining the three concepts to obtain a more rational theory of swelling
phenomenon.

Physical and engineering properties of black cotton soils varies from place to place.
Out of various research papers available on this subject few papers contains
properties of local soil. A compilation of various properties of black cotton soils, if
made, will be very useful to engineers and research workers.

Katti, R.K. and others (ref.21) collected soil samples from 16 different locations
and conducted detailed laboratory investigations and have given physical and
engineering properties of Black cotton soils a tabular form. The same table is
reproduced here. The various locations are indicated in the soil map.
 Table 3.1-Locations of 9 soil samples
S1-Solapur 2 S2-Poona1
S3-Siddheshwar S4-Nasik
S5-Nagpur S6-Solapur 1
S7-Yeldhari S8-Amraoti
S9-Baroda

Fig. 3.1 –Site map of samples

tested
Table 3.3- Properties of Black cotton soils
Sample No. (See legend in Fig. 11
Property S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
L.L % 69.2 67.2 70.3 72.3 59.2 65.7 68.0 81.0
P.I.% 27.3 18.3 28.4 24.6 15.9 25.0 21.8 34.0
S.L. % 12.4 8.2 13.5 7.4 10.3 11.9 14.1 10.0
S.R. 2.07 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.1
S.G. 2.74 2.72 2.71 2.7 2.7 2.67 2.72 2.72
Gravel 21.0 0.0 3.0 2.4 8.5 3.0 3.5 0.0
%
Sand% 18.0 17.5 21.0 16.6 12.5 18.0 10.0 13.5
Silt % 28.2 48.5 34.5 32.5 28.2 26.5 32.5 32.5
Clay -5 32.8 39.0 41.5 48.5 50.8 52.5 54.0 54.0
Clay -1 - - - - - - - -
IS M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H.
classi-
fication

Measurement of swelling pressures: When an expansive soil attracts and

accumulates water, a pressure known as swelling or expansion pressure builds up in
the soil and it is exerted on the overlying material and structure if there are any.
Swelling pressure is defined as “If a swelling substance is tightly enclosed in a
vessel with a wall permeable to a swelling solvent and latter is allowed to diffuse
into the vessel, the dilation tendency of the soil solvent gel give rise to a pressure
called “Swelling pressure”.

The two commonly used methods for measurement of swelling pressure are,
Constant Volume method or Constant Pressure method
 Constant Volume method:
In this the soil is mixed with appropriate quantity of water. After maturing period
the soil is placed in a mould. The bulk density and water content of the specimen
is determined by standard methods. The specimen is covered with porous stones
and filter paper. The entire mould in placed in a water trough under loading
machine with proving ring and dial gauge to measure force and swelling of soil.
The expansion of soil specimen is nullified by applying force gradually and
proving ring reading is recorded at different time intervals till there is no further
swelling of soil.

Pressure intensity is calculated from proving ring reading and specimen area. A
pressure Vs time graph is plotted. The maximum pressure intensity gives the
swelling pressure of soil for a specific dry density and water content.

Constant Pressure Method:

In this method minimum three identical soil specimen are subjected to three
different load intensities and allowed to saturate and swell or consolidate. The
load intensities are so selected that soil swells under lowest load intensity and
consolidate under maximum load intensity. After the equilibrium is achieved the
changes in the volume of specimen are recorded. A graph between load intensity
as abscissa and volume change as ordinate. The load intensity at which volume
change is zero is called swelling pressure.
Factors affecting the magnitude of swelling pressure:
The swelling pressure of an expansive soil is not unique but it is influenced by
number of factors such as initial density and water content, method of
compaction, confining pressure and specimen size etc.

Murthy, VNS and Chari R. (Ref. 22) studied these factors affecting the swelling
pressure of expansive soil.

Initial water content: Swelling being basically processes of absorption of water,

the initial water content represents the state of initial swelling. A soil with lower
water content is expected to swell more than soil with higher water content. The
lowest water content at site during a dry season may be taken as datum for the
purpose of field computation.

Density of soil sample: For constant moisture content, the soil density has a
definite effect on swell pressure. This is mainly due to the grater scope for
building up of absorbed film around each of clay particles. Uppal and Palit (ref
38) have shown that as dry density increases the swell pressure also increases.
The have found that at low density up to 15 kN/m3 the swell pressure is very
small but as the degree of compaction increased beyond this value there is abrupt
rise in swelling pressure.

Time of saturation: The process of swelling is gradual because soil takes time for
the water to penetrate into soil layers and cause expansion cumulatively.
Therefore time allowed for expansion is an important factor. The affinity for
absorption being great in soils with low moisture content, initial rate increases the
swell pressure in those soils is greater than those soils with higher water content.
It can thus be anticipated that soils with lower moisture will have a very
percentage of swell even during initial contact with water. Initial rate of increase
of swell pressure is lesser in soils with higher densities. This may be the effect of
lower permeability of the soil and is also of great significance in practice.

Free expansion permitted: Swell pressure is a consequence of the restraint on the

free swelling. Any expansion allowed result in a reduction of swelling pressure.
An expansion of 0.025 mm is said to reduce the swell pressure by as much as 5
KN/sqm.

Sample height: Some tests were conducted by Uppal and Palit (Ref.32) to study
the effect of height of sample on swelling pressure. The process of swelling is
result of building absorbed water films. Given sufficient time such action will
take place over the entire depth of clay stratum. The quantitative swell and
swelling pressure should be a cumulative effect. The swelling pressure is
observed to vary directly with the height and inversely with the diameter of the
specimen. However if the skin friction is eliminated. The swelling pressure is
found to be independent of the size of the test specimen.
Field measurement of swelling pressure: The problem of safe and economic design
of foundations in expansive soil has been engaging the attention of geotechnical
engineers all over the world. The problem which has proved most difficult is that of
a single storied building on heaving clay because of light foundation pressures. In
India many housing schemes are located in areas made up of expansive clay.
Therefore the problem needs to be studied in detail. Results of laboratory
measurement of swelling pressure of black cotton soils and failures of few buildings
made it clear that it would be useful to conduct some field measurement of swelling
pressure and compare it with laboratory investigations.

Swelling pressure determination in field: The general soil profile in the chosen area
consists of 2.2 to 2.5 m. of B.C. soil as top layer underlain by
2.5 m brownish yellow sticky clay resting on soft morrum which extend below to
a fairly great depth.

Field Set-up for swelling pressure measurement: At test site bore holes 15 cm
diameter and 5 to 6 m depths were sunk with the help of power augers. In each bore
hole a reinforcement cage was lowered and concreting was done. The concrete piles
protruded 1 m above ground level. The threaded portion of reinforcement was 15
cm above the pile head. A steel plate was attached to the pile for uniform load
distribution. Steel I section was fixed to a pair of piles which were free from vertical
movements due to swelling of soil. Plates 75 cm to 25 cm diameter were placed at a
depth 30 cm to measure swelling force exerted by soil, using proving ring attached
to I section.

Lateral swelling pressure: The phenomenon of lateral swelling of expansive soil is

well known. Many structures crack due to lateral swelling pressures.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
 Expansive soils always pose various problems to foundation engineers. Almost all
cohesive soils have expansive property from insignificant to highly significant.
Expansive soils are found in various parts of the world such as USA, South
Africa, Australia, Spain, Israel, Myanmar and India.

The problems posed by expansive soils of India can be summarized as below,

 Deep excavation for foundation: BC soils are residual soils resulting from
weathering of Igneous rock (Basalt). The thickness of soil stratum can be
high as 3 to 10 m. laying the foundation on a firm non-swelling stratum
involves deep excavation in stiff clay and increases the cost of
construction.
 Assumption of low bearing capacity: The correct estimation of allowable
bearing capacity of BC soils is complicated by various factors such as
swelling pressure, ground water table variations, site conditions etc. This
leads to assumption of lower bearing capacity. But if the probable swelling
is higher than the assumed bearing capacity, the foundations are subjected
differential settlements. Cracking of single storied buildings is very
common than that of double storied buildings.
 Non uniform swelling or shrinkage: The equilibrium water content is not
same below the foundation. This leads to differential settlements and
diagonal cracking of masonry superstructure.

 High cost and low reliability of rehabilitation: Remedial measures for

damaged structure are costly and not reliable in long term. Hence
prevention is better than cure.

Construction techniques for foundations in expansive soils:

(1) Removal of entire expansive soil: The first and very simple method is to remove
the entire layer of expansive soil up to firm and non-expansive stratum.
Other practice is to provide a cushioning layer between bottom of foundation and
top of soil. The cushioning layer is granular soil to allow the swelling of soil to
penetrate in its voids. Laboratory tests have shown that if an expansive soil is
permitted to expand by slight amount, the swelling pressure is reduced by
considerable amount. This method is suitable if the thickness of swelling soil
stratum is less than 2 m.
Dawson (ref.7) conducted study of foundations on expansive soil, permitted to
swell laterally by providing honeycomb tiles.
Reiner (Ref.42) presented an economical type of foundation. As per his method
the foundation pit was covered by a thin layer of lean concrete covered with a
layer of bitumen. The lean concrete layer cracks and bitumen enters into the
cracks and provides a cushion.
Boardman (Ref.3, 4) proposed a method in which brick walls are reinforced and
building is divided into separate units allowing open joints. But this method is
suitable for sites at which seasonal changes in water content of ground are not
much.
Date (ref.18) adopted an inverted T beam and pile foundation system. It was
 assumed that during dry season loads would be transferred to piles and in wet
season the swelling pressures would be resisted by inverted T beams.

(2) A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath the
structure and supports all the walls and columns. This type is used when the
allowable soil pressure is low and building loads are heavy. The raft is also used
when where soil mass contains compressible layers which may lead differential
settlements. The raft or mat tends to bridge over the erratic deposits and
eliminates the differential settlement. It is also used to reduce settlement above
highly compressible soils by making the weight of the structure and raft
approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated.

(3) The pier and belled footing cast in a drilled and under-remed hole is in reality a
cast in place pile with an enlarged base. If the clay is dry or below the shrinkage
limit when the pier is cast, it will subsequently swell both laterally and vertically
and exert pressure against the sides of the pier and uplift along the pier. This
uplift force along the surface of the pier is limited by friction along the pier
surface, by the shear strength of the clay, and by the expansive force of the clay.
Without precautions for reducing the friction between clay and concrete of the
pier, it is probable that the shear strength of the clay will be the governing factor.
The uplift pressure is greatest near the top of the pier where the clay expands
most. In some cases, uplift has been sufficient to pull the pier in two at the top of
bell. Ref. Fig.4.1

Fig.4.1 - The pier and belled footing

It is believed that the following criteria can be used for the design of successful
foundations of cast in place pier and belled footing units.
 Use as high contact pressure as is consistent with carrying capacity of the
 soil.
 Use bell 3 times diameter of pier for maximum anchor.
 Use smallest pier compatible with load and bell size in order to keep
surface area minimum.
 Extend reinforcement into bell to within 4” of bottom in order to anchor
pier to bell.
Sometime the oversize hole is drilled to the entire depth and the bell is formed at
the bottom of the oversize hole. The bell is filled with concrete to extend a slight
distance in to the pier above the bell and the casing for the pier is pushed a short
distance into the fresh concrete in order to prevent concrete from rising into the
space around the outside of the casing. When using this procedure, care should be
exercised to see that the casing is not

(4) The grade beams or plinth beams cast in contact with desiccated clay are
sometimes broken be uplift pressure of expanding clay. Even if the
grade beams were reinforced to resist this pressure, the uplift on the
supports may cause as much damage as if the beam were allowed to
break Provision should be made for a void under grade beams into witch
the clay can expand without exerting uplift pressure.
The use of collapsible card board beam boxes is much more practical and sure
method of preventing uplift under grade beams. These cardboard boxes are
shipped flat and are folded to form a hollow box of the proper dimensions for the
purpose. The cardboard is treated to prevent immediate disintegration and to
remain strong enough to support runways for concrete buggies long enough, for
concrete to be placed and harden. These cardboard beam boxes are produced
commercially in Kansas and Texas.

(5) Several methods have been devised for casting the structural floor system on
forms that lie directly on the clay and disintegrate after a short period leaving a
space for expansion of the clay.

Fig.4.2 - Structural floor system

One method for forming the slab which has been sued experimentally is to loosen
the clay to a depth of 30 to 50 cm. and to form the loose soil in

(6) The most common and best suited of all is the under-reamed pile foundation.
This method is discussed in detail in the next chapter.
There are problems posed to the old buildings which are standing. The techniques
or the remedial measures used for the prevention and further developments of
cracks are discussed below.

 K. (9) and Subash Chandra suggests a simple method for the prevention
recurrent in small buildings founded on Black Cotton Soil, directed at keeping
the moisture content in soil immediately under and around the building as
constant as possible so as to minimize the ground movement. Vertical sand
drains connected by channels are placed about 2m. on centers all around the
effected building. Waste water from the building was allowed to flow into
them. A line concrete apron laid on polythene membrane may be added
between the walls of the building and the sand drains to retard loss of moisture
by evaporation as much as possible.

 Ward, W.H. (40) studied the effect of fast growing trees and shrubs on
shallow foundation. According to him, in summer the trees absorb large
quantities of water from the clay under footing which then shrinks appreciably
and lets down the structure which is incapable of resisting the settlement. The
shrinkage one reaches as far as the most remote root which generally extends
distance greater than the height of the tree.
 So the fast growing trees should not be planted near the foundation.
 The footing is placed sufficiently deep in a zone not affected by soil
moisture movements and
 The structure may have shallow foundation but be made strong enough to
resist cracking

 A flexible waterproof apron, of about 2m. Width provided at a depth of about

90 cm. forms a suitable remedial measure for cracked buildings. The best time
for providing an apron is at the end of monsoons. The soil should be neither
too dry nor too wet. It should be dug out around the building up to a depth of
about 50 cm. The surface is them dressed and given an outward slope of 1 in
30. Over this surface a flexible apron which may accommodate ground
movement s without rupture is laid. It can be a 10 cm. lime concrete layer
over which a tar felt is laid. In place of tar-felt and alkathene sheet 0.25 mm.
thick can be used. Care should be taken that no mechanical damage is caused
to the water proof membrane. Alternatively a bituminous concrete layer of
about 75 mm. thickness can be adopted in place of lime concrete and
alkathene sheet. The apron should go about 75 mm. into the foundation wall
by cutting a chase so that no room is left for evaporation or saturation from
the joint. The width of apron is kept 2m. A typical section of the apron
treatment is shown in figure 4.3
 Fig.4.3- A flexible waterproof apron
After the apron is laid the soil should be back filled and properly dressed to give an
outward slope of 1 in 30. It will serve to protect the apron against damage.
It has been observe that the underground flexible aprons around buildings arrest
further cracking. After two cycles of seasons the cracks becomes stable and no
further damage is generally noticed.
 UNDER-REAMED PILE FOUNDATIONS
The best method of foundations in expansive soils is foundation which is anchored
in the stable zone of the ground, in which the moisture variations are negligible.
This was observed from the performance of cast-in-situ piles with enlarged bases.
Such piles were successfully installed in South Africa and Israel. CBRI Roorkee
realized the importance of such piles and undertook a research project to develop a
simple procedure for manually operated hand augured piles. More than 5000 piles
were constructed and tested in various parts of India and based on the practical
experience CBRI Roorkee published and published a manual on under- reamed
piles and gave design tables for various diameters of augured piles.
Subsequently Bureau of Indian Standards published a code of practice I.S.2911 part
3. The code describes the various parts such as pile, grade beams and reinforcement
details. The code also includes a design formula for working out load carrying
capacity of a single on multi-reamed piles. The code also includes the equipment
required for such construction. A method of load test on piles is also included.
Limitations of UR piles: There are many limitations to construction of under-
reamed piles and are discussed below;
Needs strict supervision: Unless there is strict supervision by expert, the whole
purpose of this technique is lost. The check points as listed below.
 Exact location-Insist use of guide on ground for proper location and
inclination of pile.
 Proper length of pile- The top bulb must be in the stable.
 Checking of bulb diameter- Use L bar to check the bulb diameter
 Spacing between two bulbs- Adequate spacing is must to avoid collapse of
side wall of bore.
 Concreting – Use PVC pipe during poring of concrete of desired slump.
 No vibrator is to be used. Use heavy tamping rods. Piles should be randomly
selected for load test.
The different design and construction steps are illustrated through Fig. 5,1 to 5.7
below
 Fig.5.1 - Construction Stages Fig. 5.2 –Measurement of bulb

Fig.5.3- Details of under-reamed pile

Fig.5.4 –Boring in progress Fig.5.5 –Pullout of hand auger

Fig.5.6 –Reinforcement details Fig.5.7 –Standard dimensions

 STABILISATION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

Stabilization in a broad sense incorporates the various methods employed for

modifying the properties of a soil to improve its engineering performance.
Stabilization is being used for a variety of engineering works, the most common
application being in the construction roads and foundation purposes, where the main
objective is to increase the strength, improve the stability of soil mass and to reduce
the construction cost.
(1) Effect of inorganic chemicals on the consistency properties:

 Chlorides: CaCl2, BaCL2 and MgCl2, do not have much effect on the P.L.
and S. L. of the soil. However, there is decrease in L.L. values and decrease
in P.L. value. It may be noted that while in case of Ca (OH) 2 there is an
increase i n P.L. and S. L. with the additive, these values more or less remains
constant in ease of calcium chlorides. This effect may be due to the fact that
the chlorides are more alkaline than the corresponding hydroxides.

 Carbonates: MgCo3 increases the L.L. and P.L. values while BaCo3 does not
show any marked effect. The S. L. values tend to increase. All carbonates
may be said to produce dispersion and cause increase in plasticity.

 Cement: It can be noted that cement has a similar effect as Ca (OH) 2 but to a
lesser degree. This may be due to the lesser amount of free lime available
from cement. It may be noted that even with 10 per cent of cement, the soils
do not become non-plastic. The S.L. values however, considerably increase
with the addition of cement.

 Na2Sio3: Sodium silicate increase the L.L. and P.I. for all the soils and make
them highly plastic. This may be attributed to the disperse effect. The S.L.
values seem to increase with the additive.

(2) Effect of aging on consistency: The amount of complex compound formed due
to the reaction between soil and chemical is dependent upon (i) The amount of
chemicals (ii) pH of the soil (iii) The amount of time allowed for the reaction.
The chemicals used are hydroxides of Na, K, Mg and Ca, chlorides of Ba, Ca
and Mg, Carbonates of Na, Ba, and Mg and cement. The chemical used in
various percentages between 0 and 7. Free water is essential for reaction to take
place between soil and the chemical added.
(3) Bearing Characteristics: A study was conducted on S-2 soil i.e. from Poona
treated with KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2, cement and Na2Co3, to get an idea about
the bearing characteristics used for this study was 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 3.0,
and 7.0 percent of the oven dry weight of the soil. C.B.R. test at standard proctor
density with surcharge on soaked samples were conducted. The No. of days
soaking was 4 days.

(4) Use of Lime-Cement and Combination of Lime and Cement: The primary
purpose of this study is to evaluate the unconfined compressive strength, bearing
capacity, shear strength, flexural strength and durability characteristics of black
cotton soil samples treated with lime and cement. Lime used is this investigation
was a calcium hydroxide of technical grade and the cement was a normal
Portland cement.
 Effect of lime and Cement on Strength characteristics
Lime and cement added together generally resulted in comparatively large
improvement in strength characteristics. An optimum lime content varying between
6 to 8% gives for a given amount of cement .The maximum cohesion, internal
friction and initial tangent modulus values. Cohesion values of over 100 psi. Are
obtained for almost all the mixes containing more than 20 per cent total admixture,
while the values of angle of internal friction are of the order of 200 to 300 and
initial tangent modulus are over 30 kips per sq. in for most of the mixes.

(5) Stabilization of soils with Aniline and furfural:

Early stabilization studied indicated that artificial resins were a mean for
accomplishing a practical stabilization with satisfactory results. The most
effective of these artificial resins is the resin formed by the reacting on two parts
of anticline to one part of the furfural. Aniline and furfural are two liquid organic
chemicals that polymerize on contact to form a resign know as aniline furfural
resin. Aniline reacts with baldheads to from a group of compounds that are
known as „Schiff‟ bases.

(6) Use of Molasses for stabilization: Molasses which is a byproduct from sugar
factory in area close to the factory it is available cheap. Some of the laboratory
experiments have shown that the soil can be successfully stabilized with
molasses. Molasses is a mixture of Glucose (C6H12O6) and Sucrose
(C12H22O12). Also small quantities of inorganic salts and organic compounds
are present.
 CONCLUSIONS

An attempt has been made to review and edit the vast literature available on the
subject of expansive soils, so as to elucidate the present status of knowledge on
the subject.
Though there are number of identification methods and techniques, classifications
systems of expansive soils are only few. None of the classification system takes
into account the percentage of clay minerals.
The literature on engineering properties is scanty and gives properties of some
local soils only. A systematic soil survey of expansive soils should be undertaken.
The procedure for measurement of swelling pressure needs standardization taking
into consideration of various factors affecting it. There is much scope for effect of
swelling on retaining structures.
Each of the construction technique described, has its own limitations. Under-
reamed pile foundations described in detail in the other foundation techniques are
becoming important. There is a scope to develop some simple techniques for low
cost houses.

Stabilization methods using inorganic and organic additives are described in

chapter but more practical methods need to be developed.
Our sincere efforts to include maximum available information had certain
limitations such as non-availability of references and time limit to complete the
project work.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 “Review of Expansive soils” (1974),Jr. of Geotechnical Div. ASCE,

Vol. 100, June 1974
 Journal of Indian Road Congress, A suggested soil classification of
B.C. Soils of India”, Vol.18, 1953-54.