360 SIMPSON AND TATSUOKA
as strength, stiffness and solubility of solid components in
groundwater. Unsaturated soil mechanics and biological
issues may also be relevant, and hydrogeology will be very
important. It is unlikely that single individuals will be fully
competent in all these disciplines, but engineers might
develop competence in various combinations of them, and
education courses could also combine them in some way.
To date, most of the published data on heat interchange
with the ground relate to trials rather than to full-scale
constructions, and a full explanation of the science is rarely
provided. It is therefore very timely that Géotechnique will
hold a Symposium in Print in 2009 on the subject ‘Applica-
tions affected by the thermal characteristics of the ground’.
Reducing energy usage and carbon dioxide emissions in
construction
The process of civil engineering construction is a major
user of energy in its own right, so it will be important to
reduce this wherever possible. It is anticipated that studies
of the whole-life energy usage of projects will become more
common, requiring comparative assessment of the embodied
energy in construction materials, energy usage to form a
construction, and energy required during the operational life
of a structure.
For example, Chau et al. (2006) have recently studied the
embodied energies of various types of embedded retaining
wall. They note that the manufacture of both steel and
cement consumes a lot of energy, and they conclude that
steel walls, using recycled steel, have much less embodied
energy than concrete walls of similar stiffness. However, the
use of virgin steel, now comparatively rare in European
construction, entails much more embodied energy.
Reducing embodied energy in construction will lead to
greater reuse of materials, the use of poorer, but locally
available, fill materials, and greater use of many forms of
ground improvement. Reuse of piled foundations has been
studied at some length in the RUFUS project (Chapman et
al., 2004), and considerations of the use of fill and structural
materials in construction on soft ground are discussed by
O’Riordan (2007) on the basis of its importance to the
design of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link in the UK.
The authors anticipate that practising geotechnical engi-
neers will need to become proficient in assessing the energy
requirements of construction, and this will also be an
important aspect of research in coming years.
Alternative sources of energy
For many years, geotechnical engineers and geologists
have been critically involved in the extraction of coal, oil
and gas on land and sea, and in the related infrastructure. It
is anticipated that this will continue, perhaps with renewed
emphasis on coal as oil and gas potentially become more
scarce. Interactions between mining engineering, geology,
rock mechanics and soil mechanics will be essential. If, as
seems likely, it is necessary to extract oil and gas from
depleted or marginal fields, better understanding of the
geomechanics of oil and gas reservoirs will be important.
For example, problems such as ‘sanding’ due to overstressing
of sandstone will require more investigation to give a better
understanding of the rock and soil mechanics involved in
the crushing of the material. Work on this is already under-
way at various research centres.
If oil and gas start to become more scarce, coal will
probably grow in importance as a primary source of energy.
In China, for example, there is currently a rapid expansion in
deep coal mining, with mines typically extending to depths
exceeding 1 km. Elsewhere, opencast working requires the
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formation of deep quarries, with the attendant problems of
slope stability and water control. Although these forms of
mining are generally seen as somewhat specialist, they
require the basic disciplines of soil mechanics and, especially,
rock mechanics, and the particular skills of combining theory,
analysis, observation and precedent that characterise all forms
of geotechnical engineering. Again, there are many potential
opportunities for academic involvement.
As society tries to reduce its dependence on carbon fuels,
and looks for alternative sources of energy, new geotechnical
challenges arise: wind, tide and nuclear energy are consid-
ered here.
It is likely that very large numbers of wind turbines will be
constructed in the coming years, both onshore and offshore.
Many of these may require relatively conventional piled
foundations, but the sheer number of them argues for careful
review of the design process to optimise the balance of
robustness and economy. Larger offshore turbines will prob-
ably use suction foundations, which are subject to continuing
research and development (e.g. Houlsby & Byrne, 2005).
Harnessing tidal power is a challenge often considered,
but realised on a significant scale only in the scheme at La
Rance, France, which produces about 100 MW of power on
average (EDF, 2007). This is the only tidal power scheme in
Europe, and the largest in the world. The Sustainable
Development Commission (2007) has reported that the UK
has the potential to use tidal power as one of its major
energy resources, particularly in the Severn Estuary, pro-
vided the environmental, social and economical impacts can
be mitigated. Any development of tidal power requires the
construction of very large barrages, probably earth dams,
which has been uncommon in much of the world in the last
few decades. It seems unlikely that many such schemes will
be built, so their impact on the geotechnical industry as a
whole may be fairly small. However, some revitalising of
expertise will be needed, and such large projects could well
spawn research opportunities.
A resurgence of construction for nuclear power seems
likely. Apart from foundations for very heavy loads, this
leads to the need, which in fact already exists, for deep
disposal of nuclear waste, an issue with many geotechnical
aspects and the focus of considerable current research.
Suitable strata of relatively impermeable rock or clay have to
be located and tested, requiring large investigations. Geologi-
cal stability is particularly important, given that the reposi-
tory may have to remain safe for much longer than the age
of our present civilisation. The behaviour of the material and
water in pores or fissures as temperature changes has to be
understood, together with the grouts and clays used to
surround and contain the radioactive waste; some of this
material will initially be unsaturated. As some radio nuclides
will inevitably escape their immediate containment, their
adsorption onto the particle surfaces of surrounding materials
will be important, as will a full understanding of their move-
ment through the materials in groundwater. Geotechnical
engineering and nuclear engineering will clearly overlap in
these studies; the Géotechnique Symposium in Print of 2007
contains several relevant papers (Bernier et al., 2007; Delage
et al., 2007; Gens et al., 2007; Piriyakul et al., 2007).
Geotechnical engineering will also contribute to the safer
construction of nuclear power plants in highly seismic zones
such as Japan by more reliable prediction of the input motion
to the structures and the seismic stability of the supporting
ground, and by the design of foundation structures.
Mitigating effects of climate change
Potential effects of climate change vary around the world,
including rising sea level, more severe rainfall events, and