Science Exam Revision:

Biology:
Cells:
● DNA is stored in the nucleus:
○ Deoxyribonucleic Acid
○ DNA is a double helix
○ Rails of the ladder are made of sugar-phosphate
○ Base pairs make rungs
○ Adenine always pairs with Thymine
○ Guanine binds with Cytosine
○ The backbone of the molecule is alternating phosphates and

deoxyribose sugar
○ The teeth are nitrogenous bases
○ Base pairs:
◆ Nucleotide (3 chemical groups)
◆ Smallest section of DNA that we can get
◆ Sugar - deoxyribose:
◆ Contains 5 Carbon atoms
◆ Phosphate group
◆ Base (out of A, T, C, G)
○ Codons are sequences of 3 bases:
◆ Are the instructions to make a particular type of protein
◆ 3 nucleotides
◆ Are like letters in the alphabet
◆ Made of 3 of the 4 bases
○ Genes:
◆ A string of condon codes for several amino acids form a gene
◆ A gene can be as short as 50 nucleotides and as long as 250

million
◆ Humans have over 3 billion nucleotides or 1 billion codons
◆ Each gene codes for a certain trait
◆ The smallest part of DNA that can control characteristics (MAY

BE IN TEST)
◆ Genes make up chromosomes
○ Chromosomes:
◆ Almost every cell in your body contains 46 chromosomes
◆ Macromolecule of DNA
◆ Contains many genes
◆ Usually contained in the nucleus
◆ Human cell is made of 23 from the mother and 23 from the

father
 ○ Stats and numbers:
◆ Each cell has about 2m of DNA
◆ The average human has 75 trillion cells
◆ The average human has enough DNA to go from the earth to

the sun more than 400 times

○ DNA replication:
◆ Mitosis:
◆ Natural cloning (replicates parent cell)
◆ Cell division
◆ New cells for growth or repair

Structure of the Cell:

● Cell membrane:
○ Each cell is enclosed in a membrane
○ The exposed heads are hydrophilic
○ The heads inside are hydrophobic
○ It transports nutrients into the cell and transports toxic substances

out
● Cell wall:
○ A rigid, protective cell wall made of poly-saccharides
○ Gives strength and protection to the cell
● Nucleus:
○ Holds the DNA responsible for providing the cell with its unique

characteristics
● Nucleolus:
○ In the nucleus
○ Produces ribosomes
 ○ Assists with protein synthesis
● Ribosomes:
○ The site of protein synthesis
● Cytoplasm:
○ The collective term for all cytosol and the organelles within the

cytosol
○ The gloop inside the cell
● Mitochondria:
○ The powerhouse of the cell
○ Provides all energy the cell needs
● Chloroplasts:
○ Specialised organelle found in all higher plant cells
○ Contains chlorophyll
○ Responsible for colour and absorbing sunlight for photosynthesis

Mutation:
● Mutation is a change in the gene or chromosome
● Effects:
○ Can happen at any time but usually during cell division
◆ Cancer is cells dividing more often than they should
○ The most damaging ones occur in gametes
◆ Means the mutation is replicated in every cell of the offspring
◆ Causes genetic diseases
○ Mutations are mostly minor, many are harmful, some are lethal,

very few are helpful

○ Most significant mutations produce no offspring
● How do they occur:
○ Can occur in any cell
○ Changes in the DNA
◆ Damage in the codons
○ Addition or removal of a part of a chromosome
○ Mutagens cause mutations to occur:
◆ Radiation
○ Chemicals cause mutations to occur:
◆ Nicotine
◆ Pesticides
○ Biological agents:
◆ HPV
● Advantageous mutations:
○ When they give evolutionary advantages
○ Humans are the results of billion of years of mutations
● Reproductive cell mutation:
○ Germ cell mutation or germ line mutation
 ○ Occurs in the reproductive system and is passed into the gamete
○ May be during an error during meiosis
○ Offspring will inherit the altered genetic information
● Somatic mutation:
○ Occurs in a body cell
○ Cannot be inherited
○ Can turn into cancer

Cell Division:
● Mitosis:
○ All complex organisms originated from a single fertilised egg
○ All daughter cells contain the same genetic code from the original

parent cell
○ Every cell in the body started here and increase through cell

division
○ Chromatid:
◆ One strand of DNA
◆ After replication a chromosome is made up of two identical

chromatids
○ Centromere:
◆ Place where each of the chromatids join
○ Daughter cells:
◆ New cells formed by mitosis
○ Mitosis is the process by which new body cells are produced for:
◆ Growth
◆ Replacement of dead or damaged cells (skin cells, hair)
○ Steps
◆ Parent cell
◆ DNA replication
◆ Chromosomes are copied and doubled in number
◆ Chromosomes now split
◆ Cell division
○ IPMAT:
◆ Interphase:
◆ Phase of mitosis where the cell performs it normal

activities for life

◆ DNA is in the chromatin state (still coiled up like spaghetti)
◆ Chromosomes are not visible
◆ Chromosomes and centrioles replicate before end of

interphase
◆ Prophase:
◆ Preparing to separate
◆ Chromosomes become more visible
 ◆ Centrioles move apart
◆ Chromosomes shorten and thicken
◆ Nucleolus begins to disappear
◆ Mitotic spindle begins forming
◆ Metaphase:
◆ Move to middle
◆ Chromosomes held together held together at centromere

align along the equator

◆ Nuclear envelope has disappeared
◆ Anaphase:
◆ Move apart
◆ Chromosomes move away from each other
◆ Filaments full apart the chromatids from each chromosome
◆ Telophase:
◆ Pinch in like a tight waist
◆ Nuclear envelopes begin forming
◆ Chromosomes begin to become extended and less visible
◆ Nucleolus reforms
◆ Cytokinesis continues
◆ Cytokinesis:
◆ Form daughter cells
◆ Exact copies
○ Remember:
◆ Invisible
◆ Prepare
◆ Middle
◆ Apart
◆ Two
◆ Complete
● Asexual and sexual reproduction:
○ Sexual:
◆ Variation
○ Asexual:
◆ Variation
◆ No variation
◆ Fast
◆ Always find a mate
◆ Not much fun
● Meiosis:
○ Ways to get variation
◆ Independent assortment:
◆ The different ways that we are able to organise

chromosomes
◆ Random assortment
 ◆ Crossover
○ Meiosis is the process of cell division that produces haploid
gametes:
◆ A gamete is a sex cell that has half the genetic material of the

parent cell
◆ Two haploid gametes combine to produce the first diploid cell

of a new organism
○ Meiosis is cell division in which the number of chromosomes is
halved
○ Steps:
◆ Prophase 1:
◆ Diploid cell is ready to undergo meiosis
◆ Nuclear membrane will disappear
◆ Metaphase 1:
◆ Chromosomes line up in pairs across the centre of the cell
◆ Anaphase 1:
◆ One chromosome from each pair is pulled to opposite ends

of the cell by the spindle

◆ Telophase 1:
◆ Nuclear membrane reforms and the resulting two daughter

cells are haploid

◆ Split into two daughter cells (haploid with bivalent

chromosomes)
◆ Each daughter cell now undergoes a mitotic-like division

(meiosis 2) to produce four daughter cells (gametes) in total

each with a single set of chromosomes:
◆ The four daughter cells (haploid with single-stranded

chromosomes)
Genetic Variation:
● Meiosis allows for crossing over
● Meiosis allows for independent assortment of chromosomes
● Allows for random selection of sperm

Definitions List:
● DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
○ Base:
◆ A pairs with T
◆ G pairs with C
○ Nucleotides:
◆ Base
◆ Sugar (deoxyribose)
◆ Phosphate
○ Codons:
◆ Sequences of 3 nucleotide
 ◆ Are the instructions to make a particular type of protein
○ Genes:
◆ A string of codon codes for several amino acids form a gene
◆ Genes make proteins
◆ A gene can be as short 50 nucleotides to 250 million

nucleotides
◆ Each gene codes for a certain gene
◆ The smallest part of DNA that can control characteristics
○ Chromosomes:
◆ Made of genes
◆ Almost every cell in the human body has 46 chromosomes
○ DNA:
◆ Deoxyribonucleic acid
◆ DNA is a double helix
◆ Each piece of DNA is called a chromosome
● Cell structures:
○ Cell membrane:
◆ Each cell is enclosed in a membrane
◆ Double layer of phospholipids
◆ The exposed heads are hydrophilic while the hidden tails are

hydrophobic
○ Cell wall:
◆ Rigid, protective cell wall
◆ Made of poly-saccharides
○ Nucleus:
◆ Holds the DNA
◆ Responsible for providing the cell with its unique

characteristics
○ Nucleolus:
◆ In the nucleus
◆ Produces ribosomes
○ Ribosomes:
◆ The site of protein synthesis
◆ Assists in protein synthesis
○ Cytoplasm:
◆ The collective term for all cytosol and the organelles

suspended within the cytosol

○ Mitochondria:
◆ The powerhouse of the cell
◆ Provides all energy the cell needs
○ Chloroplast:
◆ Specialised organelles found in all higher plant cells
◆ Contains chlorophyll which is responsible for colour and

absorbing sunlight for photosynthesis

 ○ Centrioles:
◆ A cylindrical organelle
◆ Composed mainly of a protein called tubular
◆ Found near the nucleus of animal cells
◆ Involved in the development of spindle fibres in cell division
● Mutation:
○ A change in the gene or chromosome
○ They can happen at any time but usually occur during cell division
○ Gene mutation:
◆ Change just in the sequence of bases
○ Chromosomal mutation:
◆ Where the chromosome starts separating
◆ Get extra or less chromosomes
● RNA and DNA:
○ Similarities:
◆ Both made of nucleotides
◆ Each nucleotide is made of a base attached to a piece of

backbone
◆ Nucleotides in both DNA and RNA form complementary base

pairs
○ Differences:
◆ Their backbones of DNA and RNA are slightly different in their

chemical makeup
◆ RNA replaces T with U
◆ In DNA each base is paired with another along the entire length

of the two strands while in RNA only some of the bases are
paired with their complement and base pairing occurs between
nucleotides in the same strand
◆ RNA molecules have an irregular, varied shape while DNA is

regular and uniform

◆ DNA molecules are huge and made up of millions of

nucleotides while RNA molecules are usually only made of

hundreds or a few thousand nucleotides

Natural selection:
● Black mice:
○ The black mice were caused by a mutation in the white mice’s

genes. This gave them an advantage, which meant that they were
less likely to stand out against the volcanic rock and could
continue reproducing, passing their black genes on.
● Offspring who survive often have advantageous traits which are
passed down through reproduction
● Due to this the majority of the population will have the advantageous
●

traits after many generations

● Advantageous traits are often due to mutations
● Genetic drift:
○ The sampling of genes from one generation to the next
○ Leads to random fluctuations in gene frequencies
○ Eventually one of two genes will “win” and another will disappear

from the gene pool

○ Is most potent in small populations
○ Genetic drift pushes towards fixation with every generation
● Mutation:
○ The source of genetic variation
○ Caused my changes in the gene
● Selection:
○ A systematic force that favours one gene over another
○ Leads to fluctuations in gene frequencies
● Speciation:
○ When one species split off into two or more species
○ Often occurs because of isolation
○ Happens when new characteristics are introduced to the point

where a new species forms

○ Happens over a long period of time due to genetic drift
● Natural Selection
○ Dogs and Wolves, both canine parties can be linked back to a

common ancestor. Dogs became domesticated and were the

friendlier wolves that were taken in by humans while wolves lived
in the wilderness. This caused speciation to occur, as they evolved
into 2 different species that better suited the environment they
were living in. Wolves have
● Evidence:
○ DNA:
◆ Organisms share DNA and traits with each other which

suggests that they were once the same

◆ However due to mutations and the environment they live in

they have evolved and changed

◆ The vast bulk of the DNA is still similar
○ Fossils:
◆ Show that life on earth was once different from life found on

Earth today
◆ Comparing fossils and modern day organisms can infer lineage
○ Vestigial Organs:
◆ Organs left over from evolution which have no use anymore
○ Embryology:
◆ Features of embryos that link to another species
◆ Evidence of a common ancestor
 ◆ Human embryos have gills which link to a common ancestor to
fish
○ Geographical:
◆ Organisms reflect their environments
○ Homologous features:
◆ Structures
◆ Similar underlying structures as a result of shared

evolution
◆ Share distinct bone structure

Physics:
Scalar and Vector:
● A vector is a quantity that is fully described in both magnitude and
direction:
○ Displacement
○ Acceleration
○ Velocity
● A scalar is quantity that is fully described by magnitude alone:
○ Distance
○ Speed
● The description of motion requires the measurement of time intervals
and distances

Speed and Velocity:

● Distance is the amount of total change of location over the course of a
motion
● Displacement is the overall change in position between the initial and
final position of the object
● Speed is a quantity that describes how fast or how slow and object is
moving
● Velocity is a quantity that is defined as the rate at which an objects
position changes
● Average speed = distance/time (scalar) - d/t
● Average velocity = displacement/time (vector) - s/t, u+t/2
○ u - starting velocity
○ v = final velocity
○ s = displacement

Motion: Acceleration:
● Acceleration is the change in velocity that occurs in a unit of time
● Acceleration is caused by an unbalanced force
● Instantaneous speed is the speed that an object has at any given
instance
 ● Average speed is the average of distance over time
● Acceleration as a vector quantity:
○ Acceleration must describe the direction
○ If an object is moving in a direction and slowing down the direction

of the acceleration is opposite the direction the object is moving

○ If an object is speeding up the acceleration direction is the same

as the direction of motion

● Acceleration is calculated with a = v-u/t

Newton’s Laws:
● Newton’s 1st Law:
○ A still object tends to remain still, a moving object tends to

continue moving unless it is acted upon by a force

○ The property of an object that resists a change in its motion is

called its inertia

○ Inertia depends only only on mass
● Newton’s 2nd Law:
○ When a force is applied to an object it will produce an acceleration
○ The acceleration is proportional to the force and inversely

proportional to the mass

○ F(net) = ma
○ For a falling object:
◆ f(weight) = mg
◆ G = acceleration due to gravity (9.8ms^-2)