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Flightdeck CAAC ATPL Study Material Meteorology Part II 2019 PDF
Flightdeck CAAC ATPL Study Material Meteorology Part II 2019 PDF
Meteorology Part II
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The following study material is an extract from Li Weidong (2nd edition) 2012, The
Aviation Theory Course for Airline Transport Pilot.
Surface analysis chart often referred to as a surface weather map, is the basic weather
chart. The chart is transmitted every. 3 hours. The valid time of the map corresponds to
the plotted observations. A date and time group in universal coordinated times (UTC)
informs the user of when the conditions portrayed on the map were actually occurring.
The surface analysis chart displays other weather information such as surface wind
direction and speed, temperature, dew point, and various the other weather data The
surface analysis chart can show the pressure patterns by lines called isobars, The
isobars on a surface weather map represent lines of equal pressure reduced to sea
level. It also includes the position of fronts, and areas of high or low pressure. Weather
Chart Station Model
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In the surface analysis chart, each reporting station is depicted on the chart by a small
circle. The weather information pertaining to the station is placed in a standard pattern
around this circle, and is called a station model (Figure 8-22).
The meaning and symbol that the method is explained as follows of every project:
1) Total sky cover -- The total sky cover is noted by special symbols, the meaning and
symbol of total sky cover as Figure 8-23.
2) Cloud type -- In the surface analysis chart, the cloud type is noted by special
symbols, the cloud name, English abbreviation and symbols are shown as Figure 8-24.
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The sky cover of the low cloud is shown by a digit noted on the right of the symbol of
the cloud, only the lowest cloud noted it. The bass of the low cloud is shown by digits,
its unit is 100 meters, the height is used the above ground level (AGL).
3) Temperature and dew point -- Temperature and dew point are noted by degrees
Celsius, if they are the negatives, prefixed by "_".
4) Present weather -- On the surface analysis chart, the present weather is shown
with special symbols, Figure 8-25 is some important present weather and its symbol.
6) Sea level pressure -- Sea level pressure is always shown in three digits to nearest
tenth of an hPa. For 1 000 hPa or greater, prefix a "10" to the three digits. For less than
1 000 hPa, prefix a "9'' to the three digits. For example: if the sea level pressure shown
in "132", the actual sea level pressure is 1 013.2 hPa.
7) Pressure change in past 3 hours -- the actual change is in tenths of an hPa. For
example: if the pressure change in past 3 hours shown in "26", the actual pressure
change in past 3 hours is increased steadily or unsteadily by "2.6" hPa.
8) Wind -- The wind direction expressed with arrow pole, the direction of the arrow
points to the station circle, shows the direction that wind comes from. The wind speed
is expressed with long or short arrow feather. See Figure 8-26.
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9) Weather in the past -- The weather in the past showed the weather phenomenon
appearing in 6 hours before being observed in the past, express with Figure 8-27 listed
the forms of the symbols.
10) 6 hours precipitation -- Precipitation in 6 hours before the precipitation shows that
is observed, it is expressed with millimetre. If it is expressed with "T", showing that the
precipitation in 6 hours is smaller than 0.1 mm.
According to the explanation above, we can read the information of the weather
station.
In Figure 8-28, the total sky cover is breaks in overcast, the high cloud type is cirrus,
the middle cloud type is altocumulus, the low cloud type is stratocumulus, the cloud
cover of stratocumulus is 5/10, the bass of the stratocumulus is 1 500 m (AGL). The
temperature is 2 and the dew point is 1 . The present weather is smoke, visibility 4
kilometers. The sea level pressure is I 008.1 hPa, the pressure change in past 3 hours
have reduced 2.1 hPa. Southeast wind at 2 m/s.
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The data of the weather in the past and the 6 hours precipitation seldom appear, so we
can not often see them.
Analysis
There are some another important contents in the surface analysis char, they are:
isobars, pressure systems, fronts, same weather area, the center of pressure change in
past 3 hours.
1) Isobars -- Isobars are solid lines depicting the sea-level pressure pattern and are
usually spaced at 2.5 hectopascal (hPa). Each isobar is labeled. For example, 1 000
signifies 1 000 hPa, and 997.5 signifies 997.5 hPa.
2) Pressure systems --The letter "L" denotes a low pressure center, and the letter "H"
denotes a high pressure center. The pressure of each center is indicated by a three- or
four-digit number that is the center pressure in hPa. (Figure 8-29).
3) Fronts -- The analysis shows positions and types of fronts by symbols in figure
8-30. The symbols on the front indicate the type of front and point in the direction
toward which the front is moving. If the front has arrowhead-shaped symbols, it is a
cold front. On the colored surface analysis chart, it is noted by a blue solid line.
If the front has half-moon shaped symbols, it is a warm front. On the colored surface
analysis chart, it is noted by a red solid line. If the front has a arrowhead-shaped
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symbols and a half-moon shaped symbols they are on the other side, it is a stationary,
front (noted by a red and a blue solid line). If the two symbols are on the same side, it is
a occluded front (noted by a purple solid line).
4) Same weather area -- On the surface analysis chart, the same weather areas are
noted by a close line. At the center, there is a symbol showing that in this area every
station has the same weather. The symbols of the same weather areas showing on
Figure 8-31.
5) The center of pressure change in past 3 hours -- In the places that most greatly
changes are occur we show them with a dashed line circle, and if the pressure change
value is a positive number, it is noted by a blue "+", and followed by the pressure
change value. If the pressure change value is a Negative number, it is noted by a red
"-", and followed by the pressure change value. See the Figure 8-32.
The surface analysis chart provides a ready means of locating pressure system and
fronts. It also gives an overview of winds, temperatures, and dew point temperatures at
chart time. When using the chart, keep in mind that weather moves and condition
change. Using the surface analysis chart in conjunction with other information gives a
more complete weather picture.
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Figure 8-33 is a section of a surface analysis chart, it shows a low pressure center with
a warm front. In the middle of the picture, there is a cold front, and a precipitation area.
In this weather area there are rain shower and thundershower. At the upper left comer
there is a high pressure center. In the north of Beijing there is a strong wind and
sandstorm area. The area arrow A pointed is a center of pressure change in past 3
hours, for past three hours, the pressure have increased 2.5 hPa.
Because the weather phenomenon takes place in the three-dimensional space, and
analyses only according to one surface analysis chart is not enough obviously. In order
to observe the weather condition of the three-dimensional space in detail, beside
analysing the weather map of ground, we should analysis the constant pressure charts.
Space surface that point makes up that atmospheric pressure equal is called the
constant pressure surface or isobaric surface. Because the same to go to atmospheric
pressure of all parts its altitude can't the same, so isobaric surface is not a horizontal
plane, but a surface as uneven as topography.
Constant pressure charts are similar in many ways to the surface analysis chart in that
they show the pressure patterns and some weather conditions for reporting stations.
These charts are prepared for selected values of pressure and present weather
information at various altitudes. The standard charts prepared are the 850 hPa, 70 hPa,
500 hPa, 300 hPa, 250 hPa, and 200 hPa charts. Charts with higher pressure present
information at lower altitudes, and Charts with lower pressure present information at
higher altitudes. Figure 8-34 lists the general altitude (pressure altitude) of each
constant pressure chart.
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Plotted Data
Data from each observation station are plotted around a station circle on each constant
pressure chart. The circle identifies the station position. The data plotted on each chart
are temperature, temperature-dew point spread, wind, height of the surface above sea
level. The temperature and temperature-dew point spread are in degrees Celsius, wind
direction is relative to true north, wind speed is in m/s, and height is in meters. Figure
8-35 is a station model of the data plot.
Illustrate
Wind -- Wind direction and speed are plotted by symbols. The method to express the
wind direction and speed are the same as it used in the surface analysis chart.
HGT -- Plotted height of the constant pressure surface in meters above mean sea
level. If data is missing, nothing is plotted in this position.
T-Td -- Plotted temperature-dew point spread to the nearest whole degree Celsius.
Position is left blank if data is missing. According to the explanation above, we can
read the information of the record station.
In Figure 8-36 (10s the temperature is , temperature-dew point spread is 5. , the height
of the constant pressure surface is 3 040 m, northwest wind at 6 m/s. We can know
that this is a data of the 700 hPa isobaric surface. In Figure 8-36 (b), the temperature is
-1, temperature-dew point spread is 3.5 ~C, the height of the constant pressure
surface is 5 800 m, southwest wind at 26 m/s. We can know that this is a data of the
500 hPa isobaric surface.
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Analysis
All constant pressure charts contain analyses of height and temperature variations.
Variations of height are analysed by contours, variations of temperature by isotherms.
Contours -- Contours are lines of constant height, in meters, which are referenced to
mean sea level. Contours are used to map the height variations of surfaces that
fluctuate in altitude. They identify and characterize pressure systems on constant
pressure charts Contours are drawn as solid lines on constant pressure charts, the
contour interval is the height difference between analyzed contours the standard
contour interval is 40 meters. Contours are identified by a three-digit code located on
each contour, to determine the contour height value, affix "zero" to the end of the code.
For example, a contour with a "312" code on the 700 hPa chart identifies the contour
value as 3 120 meters. Also, affix a "one" in front of the code on all 200 hPa contours
and on 250 hPa contours when the code begins with zero. For example, a contour with
a "044" code on a 250 hPa chart identifies the contour value as 10 440 meters.
The contour gradient is the distance between analyzed contours. Contour gradient
identify slopes of surfaces that fluctuate in altitude. Strong gradients are closely
spaced contours and identify steep slopes. Weak gradients are widely spaced
contours and identify shallow slopes.
The contour analysis displays height patterns. Common types of patterns are lows,
highs, troughs, and ridges. Contours have curvature for each of these patterns.
Contours patterns can be further characterized by size and intensity. Size represents
the breadth of a system. Sizes can range from large to small. A large pattern is
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generally more than 1000 miles across, and a small pattern is less than 1 000 miles
across. Intensities can range from strong to weak. Stronger systems are depicted by
contours with stronger gradients and sharper curvatures. Weaker systems are depicted
by contours with weaker gradients and weaker curvatures. For example, a chart may
have a large, weak high, or a small, strong low.
Contour patterns on constant pressure charts can be interpreted the same as isobar
patterns on the surface chart. For example, an area of low height is the same as an
area of low pressure.
Winds respond to contour patterns and gradients. Wind directions parallel contours. In
the Northern Hemisphere, when looking downwind, contours with relatively lower
heights are to the left and contours with relatively higher heights are to the right. Thus,
winds flow counterclockwise (cyclonically) around lows and clockwise (anticyclonically)
around highs. (In the Southern Hemisphere these directions are reversed.) Winds that
rotate are termed circulations. Wind speeds are faster with stronger gradients and
slower with weaker gradients. In mountainous areas, winds are variable on pressure
charts with altitudes at or below mountain crests. Contours have the effect of
"channeling" the wind.
Isotherms are drawn as bold, dashed lines on constant pressure charts. Isotherm
values are identified by a two-digit block on each line. The two digits are prefaced by
"+" for above-freezing values as well as the zero isotherm and "-" for below-freezing
values. Isotherms are drawn at 4-degree intervals on each chart. The zero isotherm
separates the above-freezing and below- freezing temperatures.
Trough-line and shear line -- An elongated area of low pressure to be called trough,
with the lowest pressure along a line marking maximum cyclonic curvature to be called
trough-line. The shear-line is a field discontinuous line of wind with cyclone type shear,
the wind direction, wind speed of both sides in shear-line have obvious differences.
Trough-line and shear-line are the weather systems that are often seen on constant
pressure charts, it is the important part in the synoptic analysis too.
Figure 8-37 is a constant pressure chart of 700 hPa, In this upper air weather map, we
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can see that near Lanzhou it is a high pressure center, there is a high-pressure system
in the eastern area of China too. There is a low pressure system in the area of
Mongolia; EF is a trough-line. MN is a shear-line appearing between two pieces of high
pressure. Near Beijing it is a warm air center, there is a cold center in the east of Korea
Peninsula. You can meet the turbulence while crossing the trough-line or the shear line
while flying.
The upper air constant pressure chart can be used to locate the jet stream and its
associated turbulence and wind shear. When there is a large change in wind speed
over a short distance, the probability, of turbulence is greatly increased. Since the jet
stream is associated with discontinuities in the temperature lapse rate at breaks in the
tropopause, closely spaced isotherms indicate the possibility of turbulence or wind
shear.
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In 300 hPa, 250 hPa or 300 hPa constant pressure charts, the area where the wind
speed is greater than 30 m/s is the position where the upper jet locations. The torrent
in the high altitude is a contour compact district. Figure 8-38 is a constant pressure
chart of 300 hPa, in this upper air weather map, we can see a upper jet is set out from
the Caspian Sea, through the Balkash Lake, entry Xinjiang of China, then through
Chengdu and Beijing, enter the Northeast area of Asia. The upper jet is a very strong
place of a wind shear, and flies in the upper jet or crosses it, will meet the stronger
clear air turbulence (CAT).
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observed weather conditions. The observed conditions are extended forward in time
and become forecasts by considering atmospheric and environmental processes.
Forecasts are made for various periods of time. A 12-hour prog is a forecast of
conditions which has a valid time 12 hours after the observed data base time, thus a
12-hour forecast. A 24-hour prog is a 24-hour forecast, and so on. For example, a 12-
hour forecast based on O0Z observations is valid at 12Z. Altitude information on the
prog charts is referenced to mean sea level (MSL) and compatible with aviation.
Altitudes below 18 000 feet are true altitudes while above 18 000 feet are pressure
altitudes or flight levels (FL).
The significant weather prognostic charts are generally divided in three kinds of height
layer to offer:
Low-Level Significant Weather Prog Chart (SWL) -- the flight height is lower than
FL100 (10 000 feet).
Middle-Level Significant Weather Prog Chart (SWM) -- the flight height is from FL
100 to FI.250 (10 000 feet - 25 000 feet).
High-Level Significant Weather Prog Chart (SWH) -- the flight height is from 25 000
feet to 63 000 feet. This encompasses FL250 to FL630.
Main Content
There are the following several items in the main content of significant weather
prognostic charts:
1) Significant weather -- (or calls the abominable weather), see form Figure 8-39 in
kind and symbol of the significant weather, express with the symbol on the progs.
2) Important weather system -- For instance ground fronts line, high or low pressure
center, convergence line and the intertropical convergence zone and so on (whether
system symbols are shown in Figure 8-40).
On the significant weather prognostic charts, the significant weather and cloud district
range are enclosed with the wavy line. Some important weather and cloud also stamp
the height of bass and tope, also prove with the simple language sometimes.
Cloud type:
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Cloud amount:
CB only
Cloud heights:
Heights are indicated on SWH and SWM charts in flight levels (FL), top over base.
When XXX is used, tops or bases are outside the layer of the atmosphere to which the
chart applies.
In SWL, charts:
i) Heights are indicated as altitudes above mean sea level;
Heavy solid line interrupted By wind arrow and flight level = position of jet stream axis
with indication of wind direction, speed in KT or km/h and height in flight levels.
Flight levels inside small rectangles = height in flight levels of tropopause at spot
locations, e.g. 340. Low and High points of the tropopause topography are indicated
by the letters L or H respectively inside a pentagon with the height in flight levels.
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H = center of high pressure
NOTE: 0°C level may also be indicated by 0°: 060, i.e. 0°C level is at an altitude of
6,000 ft.
Figures on arrows = speed in KT or km/h of movement of frontal systems, depressions
or anticyclones
Figure inside the state of the sea symbol = total wave height in feet or metres
Figure inside the sea-surface temperature symbol = sea-surface temperature in °C.
Figures inside the strong surface wind symbol = wind in KT or km/h.
1 knot = 1.852 kilometres per hour Low-level Significant Weather Prog Chart (SWL)
The low-level significant weather prog chart forecasts weather conditions from the
surface to the FL100. In the pictures, it denotes the fronts and its movement that is
expected (express direction with arrow point, show the speed of moving with number
value, unit km/h or KT). And it indicates the various kinds of important weather,
precipitation and the weather phenomenon which cause visibility lower than 5 000 m
on a large scale (whether visibility use number value, unit meter), and the area and
height to be influenced.
Figure 8-41 is a low-level significant weather prog chart, from this chart we can see
that on the course from Shenyang to Harbin, the weather system passing is a cold
front near Shenyang, a warm front near Harbin, There are the significant weather that
may be met on the course: rainfall near Harbin, the area of Changchun is remarkable
mountain waves, there is freezing precipitation, the thunderstorms, there is moderate
and severe turbulence, near Shenyang. There is moderate aircraft icing.
Compared with the low level Prog Charts, the middle level significant weather Prog
charts have much different. There is no surface visibility,, no low pressure or high
pressure centers, no altitude of isotherm, no sea-surface temperature and no stat of
the sea, and have added the meteorological condition of flight appeared in Middle
altitude. There is the weather:
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1) Heavy broken line delineation of area of clear air turbulence (CAT), and its intensity is
denoted by symbols.
2) Heavy solid line show the position of jet stream axis with indication of wind direction,
interrupted by wind speed in KT or km/h and height in flight levels. 3) Ash cloud (AV).
Figure 8-42 is a middle-level significant weather prog chart, on this chart we can see
that on the course from Haikou to Guangzhou, the weather system passing is the
intertropical convergence zone and a upper jet near Sanya, a quasi-stationary front
near Guangzhou. There are the significant weather that may be met on the course:
severe clear air turbulence near Haikou, the north of Haikou is remarkable mountain
waves, the thunderstorms, there is severe turbulence, and moderate aircraft icing.
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High-level Significant Weather Prog Chart (SWH)
The high-level significant weather prog chart forecasts conditions from 25 000 feet to
60 000 feet. This encompasses FL250 to FL600.
High-level significant weather prog chart have predicted all weather phenomenon of
the middle level, unlike it the cloud only predicts cumulonimbus, still have the height in
flight levels of tropopause, the unit is 100 feet.
Figure 8-43 is a high-level significant weather prog chart, on this chart we can see that
on the course from Chongqing to Kweilin, the weather system passing is a worm front,
a severe squall line and a upper jet. ]'here are the significant weather that may be met
on the course: severe clear air turbulence and the thunderstorms.
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4. Wind and temperatures aloft forecast
Wind and temperatures aloft forecast is supplied in chart form to flight crew members
before departure, the charts shall be fixed time prognostic charts for standard isobaric
surfaces. This prediction is very important while doing the flight plan.
Upper wind and upper-air temperatures forecast charts usually for points separated by
no more than 500 km (300 nm) and for the following regular height layers.
FL 50 (850 hPa) FL 100 (700 hPa) FL 180 (500 hPa) FL 240 (400 hPa)
FL 300 (300 hPa) FL 340 (250 hPa) FL 390 (200 hPa) FL 450 (150 hPa)
On upper wind and upper-air temperatures forecast charts, the wind speed is noted by
knots, the method of marking of the wind speed as in Figure 8-44.
In the wind and temperatures aloft forecast charts, the temperatures is noted by
degrees Celsius they are all negatives unless prefixed by "+".
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Now, we can read the information about Figure 8-45, the wind direction is southwest,
wind speed is 60 knots, temperatures is -4 .
Figure 8-46 is a party of a wind and temperatures aloft forecast chart, in this picture we
know that in this area all lean towards the west wind, strong wind area lies in the
Northeastern part pursued, low temperature area lie the Northeastern part pursued.
Where upper wind and upper air temperature information is supplied in tabular form, it
should include data for the same flight levels as for upper-air charts. This information
should be given for Examples of the form of presentation of tabular forecasts of upper
winds and upper-air temperatures are given in Figure 8-47.
In figure 8-47, the boxes refer to spot winds degrees true and knots at intersections of
latitude/longitude lines covered by the box. Temperatures in degrees Celsius, heights
are above MSL (thousands of feet).
Example
“24 260 40 -28”, the ones that showed are: height 24 000 feet, wind 260 degrees at 40
knots, temperature -28 degrees C.
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5. Aviation routine weather report (Metar)
During preflight planning, the surface aviation weather report allows you to assess
existing conditions and evaluate the accuracy of forecasts. You do this by comparing
current reports with the forecast weather for the same time period to see if the weather
is materializing as forecast. You can also review several previous reports to get a
general idea of the weather trend. A current report also indicates weather your
destination is presently above VFR or IFR minimums, as appropriate. If it is not and the
forecast calls for only slight improvement by your estimated time arrive, the destination
weather may not permit you to land. The surface report also is important at airports
without a control tower or flight services station, since the last surface observation is
the latest official weather available at that location.
The aviation routine weather report contains various weather elements in a coded form.
The elements of the report are:
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Key to the Metar Observations
The METAR is taken on the hour, the SPECI is an unscheduled observation indicating a
significant change in one or more elements of the weather.
ICAO station identifier (CCCC)
The METAR code uses ICAO 4-letter station identifiers, some city's 4-letter station
identifiers as Figure 8-48.
The time the observation is taken is transmitted as a six-digit time group appended
with a Z to denote Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), indicate the date, hour and
minute.
The wind is reported as a five-digit group, the first three digits is the direction the wind
is blowing from in ten's of degrees, or "VRB" if the direction is variable. The next two
digits is the speed in meters per second (MPS), if the wind is gusty, it is reported as a
"G" after the speed followed by the highest gust reported. 00000 MPS for calm; for
METAR, if direction vanes 60 degrees or more. Variability appended, e.g. 180V260.
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Visibility (VVVVDv VxVxVxVxDv)
Visibility- is reported in meters. When the visibility is not the same in different directions
the lowest visibility should be reported and its general direction in relation to the site of
meteorological station indicated by reference to one of the eight points of the
compass. VxVxVxVxDv Shows the greatest visibility, and direction. "9999" express
visibility 10 kilometers.
The "R' identifies the group followed by the runway heading, a "/", and the visual range
in meters. The letter "i" shows the change of the visual range in the runway in 10
minutes before observes. "U" show the visual range in the runway has the tendency to
obviously rise when observing. "D" shows there are obvious downward trends in the
visual range in the runway when observes, "N" shows there is no obvious change in
the visual range in the runway when observes.
Weather phenomena
Intensity -- applies only to the first time of precipitation reported. A "-" denotes light,
no symbol denotes moderate, and a "+" denotes heavy.
Proximity -- applies to and reported only for weather occurring in the vicinity of the
airport (between 5 and 10 miles of the center of the airport runway complex). It is
denoted by the letters "VC".
TS -- thunderstorm BL -- blowing
FZ -- freezing MI -- shallow
BC -- patches
RA -- rain GR -- hail
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Obstruction to visibility -- there are eight types of obstructing phenomena in the
METAR code:
BR -- mist HZ -- haze
FU -- smoke FG -- fog
DU -- dust PY -- spray
Note: fog (FG) is reported only when the visibility is less than one kilometer otherwise
mist (BR) is reported.
Other -- there are five categories of other weather phenomena which are reported
when they occur.
SQ -- squall SS -- sandstorm
FC -- funnel cloud/tornado/waterspout
Examples
Sky condition
The sky condition as reported in METAR represents a significant change from the way
sky condition is currently reported. In METAR, sky condition is reported in the format:
Amount, Height, (Type), or Vertical Visibility.
Amount -- the amount of sky cover is reported in eighths of sky cover, suing the
contractions:
SKC-clear (no cloud)
FEW-few (1/8 to 2/8's of clouds)
SCT-scattered (3/8's to 4/8's of clouds)
BKN-broken (5/8's to 7/8's of clouds)
OVC-overcast (8/8's of clouds)
Height -- cloud basses are reported with three digits in 30 of meters, the height is used
the above ground level (AGL).
(Type) -- if towering cumulus clouds (TCU) or cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are present,
they are reported after the height which represents their base.
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Vertical Visibility- total obscurations are reported in the format "VVhhh" where VV
denotes vertical visibility, and "hhh" is the vertical visibility in 30 of meters.
CAVOK- when it is better, word yards of CAVOK can be used for replacing the visibility
group, weather phenomenon group and cloud group, its condition is:
• 1500 meters under cloudless, and the sky does not have cumulonimbus, cumulus,
etc;
Temperature/dew point
Temperature and dew point are reported in a two-digit form in degrees Celsius.
Temperatures below zero are prefixed with an “M”.
Altimeter setting
Altimeter settings are reported in a four-digit format in whole hectopascal (hPa), denote
with a "Q", e.g. Q1003.
Example 1
METAR ZGGG 061800Z 20007G11MPS 2000 TSRA SCT030 BKN050 (CB) 28/25 Q992
=
Explanation
Aviation Routine Weather Report, Guangzhou, date 06, time 1800UTC, wind 200 at 7,
gusts 11MPS, visibility 2 000 meters, moderate thunderstorm with rain, 900 scattered,
1 500 broken, cumulonimbus, temperature 28°C, dew point 2 , altimeter 992 hPa.
Example 2
Explanation
Routine report for Donlon/International issued on the 22nd of the month at 1630 UTC;
surface wind direction 240 degrees; wind speed 15 kilometres per hour; visibility 600
metres; runway visual range representative of the touchdown zone for runway 12 is 1
000 metres and the runway visual range values have shown an upward tendency
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during previous 10 minutes (RVR tendency to be included in METAR only); fog and
moderate drizzle; scattered cloud at 300 metres; overcast at 600 metres; air
temperature 17 degrees Celsius; dew-point temperature 16 degrees Celsius; QNH
1018 hectopascals; trend during next two hours visibility becoming 800 metres in fog
by 1700 UTC; at 1800 UTC visibility becoming 10 kilometres or more and nil significant
weather.
Example 3
Explanation
Aviation selected special weather report, Seoul, date 22, time 1315UTC, wind variable
at 3 MPS, visibility 600 meters, heavy, snow and fog, vertical visibility 60 meters,
temperature -1 , dew point -3 , altimeter 1 001 hPa. The equal sign signifies the end of
the METAR.
Example 4
SPECI YUDO 151115Z 05025G37KT 1200NE 6000S +TSRA BKN050CB 25/22 Q1008
TEMPO TLI200 0600 BECMG AT1200 8000 NSW NSC =
Explanation
Selected special report for Donlon / International issued on the 15th of the month at
1115 UTC; surface wind direction 50 degrees; wind speed 25 knots gusting between
10 and 37 knots (minimum wind speed not to be included in SPEC1); visibility lowest to
north east at 1 200 metres, visibility 6 000 metres to south (directional variations to be
included in SPECI only; visibility representative of the runway included in the local
special report); heavy thunderstorm with rain; broken cumulonimbus cloud at 1 500
metres; air temperature 25 degrees Celsius; dew-point temperature 22 degrees
Celsius; QNH 1 008 hectopascals; trend during next two hours, visibility temporarily
600 metres from 1 115 to 1 200, becoming at 1200 UTC visibility 8 km, thunderstorm
ceases and nil significant weather and nil significant cloud.
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Format of the TAF Telegram
Examples
111818 Forecast valid from the eleventh at 18Z to the twelfth at 18Z.
300024 Forecast valid from the thirtieth at 00Z to the first at 00Z.
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Forecast--Body of the TAF has a basic format: WIND/VISIBILITY/WEATHER/SKY
CONDITION
Wind- Five digits followed by "MPS", the first three are direction and last two speed.
Wind gust denoted by the letter "G" appended to the wind speed followed highest
gust. Variable wind direction noted by "VRB" where direction usually appears, a calm
wind (2 m/s less) is shown as 00000 MPS.
Visibility -- Visibility is reported in meters. The forecast methods are the same as those
used in the, METAR report.
The FM group is used when a rapid and significant change, usually occurring in less
than 1 hour, in prevailing conditions is expected. Appended to the FM indicator is the
four-digit hour and minute the change is expected to begin. The forecast is valid until
the next change group or the end of the current forecast.
Examples
CAVOK-- when it is better, word yards of CAVOK can be used to forecast the visibility
group, weather phenomenon group and sky condition group, its standard is the same
as in the METAR.
Temperature predicted -- "T" is the yard denote for the temperature, "TrTr" is the
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predicted temperature in degrees Celsius. Temperatures below zero are prefixed with
an “M'.
Ex: "TM03/04Z". means "It is estimated that the temperature is -3 at 0400UTC".
Icing -- "6" is the yard denote for icing, "hihihi" is the height of the icing layer bottom (=
yard number~30 m ), "h" is the thickness of the icing layer (= yard number x 300 m ),
"Ic" is the type of the icings, the method to work out telegram see Figure 8-47.
Ex: "631002", means "there exist light icing in precipitation, the height of the icing layer
bottom is 3 000 m, the thickness of the icing layer is 600 m."
Turbulence -- "5" is the yard denote for the turbulence, "hBhBhB" is the height of the
turbulence laver bass (= yard number~30 m), "tL" is the thickness of the turbulence
layer (= yard number 300m ), "B" is the type of the turbulence, the method to work out
telegram is shown in Figure 8-49.
Ex: "561204", means "there exist severe turbulences not frequent in clear air, the height
of the turbulences layer bottom is 3 600 m, the thickness of the turbulences layer is 1
200 m."
0 No Icing No Turbulence
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Temporary conditions--Changes usually lasting less than an hour. TEMPO HHhh
(beginning and ending time).
Example 1
TAF ZUUU 1111407 111212 13005MPS 5000 BKNI00 TEMPO 1214 3500 BR
FM 1500 16008G15MPS 6000 SCT040 BKN250 TI6/20Z
FM 0000 14006MPS 3500 BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 2000 TSRA BKN030CB
FM 0400 14008MPS 3000 SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 1500 TSRA OVC030CB
BECMG 0810 32007MPS =.
Explanation
Aviation terminal forecasts Chengdu prepared on the 11th at 1140Z, valid period from
the 11th at 1200Z until the 12th at 1200Z, wind 130 at 5 m/s, visibility 5 000 m, ceiling
3 000 m broken, temporary conditions between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 3 500 m,
mist.
From 1500Z, wind 160 at 8 m/s gusting to 15 m/s, visibility 6 000 m, 1 200 m scattered,
ceiling 7500m broken, temperature is 1 at 2000UTC.
From 0000Z, wind 140 at 6 m/s, visibility. 3 500 m, ceiling 2 400 m broken, 4 500 m
overcast, 40% probability between 0000Z and 0400Z, visibility 2 000 m, thunderstorms
with moderate rain showers, ceiling 900 m broken with cumulonimbus.
From 0400Z, wind 140 at 8 m/s, visibility 3 000 m, 1200 m scattered, ceiling 2 400 m
overcast. Temporary conditions between 0400Z and 0800Z, visibility. I 500 m,
thunderstorms with moderate rain showers, ceiling 900 m overcast with
cumulonimbus, becoming between 0800Z and 1000Z, wind 320 at 7 m/s. The equal
sign signifies the end of the TAF.
Example 2
TAF YUDO 160000Z 160624 13018KMH 9000 BKN020 BECMG 0608 SCT015CB
BKN020 TEMPO 0812 17025G40KMH 1000 TSRA SCT010CB BKN020 FM1230
15015KMH 9999 BKN020 BKN 100 T26/18Z 621203 540502 =
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Meaning of the forecast
Aerodrome forecast for Donlon/International issued on the 16th of the month at 0000
UTC valid from 0600 UTC to 2400 UTC on the 16th of the month; surface wind
direction 130 degrees; wind speed 18 kilometres per hour; visibility, 9 kilometres,
broken cloud at 600 metres; becoming between 0600 UTC and 0800 UTC, scattered
cumulonimbus cloud at 450 metres and broken cloud at 600 metres; temporarily
between 0800 UTC and 1200 UTC surface wind direction 170 degrees; wind speed 25
kilometres per hour gusting to 40 kilometres per hour; visibility 1000 metres in a
moderate thunderstorm with rain, scattered cumulonimbus cloud at 300 metres and
broken cloud at 600 metres; from 1230 UTC surface wind direction 150 degrees; wind
speed 15 kilometres per hour; visibility 10km or more; broken cloud at 600 metres and
broken cloud at 3 000 metres. Temperature is 26 at 1800UTC, there exist light icing in
cloud, the height of the icing layer bottom is 3 600 m, the thickness of the icing layer is
900 m. There exist Moderate turbulences not frequent in cloud, the height of the
turbulences layer bottom is 1500m, the thickness of the turbulences layer is 600 m.
Note -- In this example, the primary units "kilometres per hour" and "metre" were used
for wind speed and height of cloud base respectively. However, units "knot" and "foot"
may be used instead.
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thunderstorm
-- obscured OBSC TS
-- embedded EMBD TS
-- frequent FRQ TS
tropical cyclone
-- tropical cyclone TC (+ cyclone name) with 10-minute mean surface wind speed of 63
km/h (34 KT) or more
turbulence
-- severe turbulence SEV TURB
icing
-- severe icing SEV ICE
mountain wave
duststorm
sandstorm
volcanic ash
cumulonimbus
hail
-- hail GR
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volcanic ash
SIGMET information shall be cancelled when the phenomena are no longer occurring
or are no longer expected to occur in the area.
The format of these advisories consists of a heading and text. The heading identifies
the issuing Weather Service Forecast Office (WSFO), type of advisory, and the valid
period. The text of the advisory contains a message identifier, a flight precautions
statement, and further details if necessary.
The period of validity of a SIGMET message should be not more than 6 hours, and
preferably not more than 4 hours.
Heading
A. ICAO location indicator of the ATS unit serving the FIR or CTA to which the SIGMET
refers. Examples: YUDO ZBAA ZSSS.
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Text
A. Name of the FIR/CTA for which the SIGMET is issued or aircraft radiotelephony call
sign.
D. Location (referring to latitude and longitude (in degrees and minutes) or locations or
geographic features well known internationally)
Examples: S OF N54, N OF N50, N2020 W07005
INTSF -- Intensify
WKN -- Weaken
NC -- No change
H. Forecast position of volcanic ash cloud or the center of the TC at the end of the
validity period of the SIGMET message.
Examples:
I. Outlook providing information beyond the period of validity of the trajectory of the
volcanic ash cloud and positions f the tropical cyclone center.
Examples:
--OTLK 260400 TC CENTRE N28030 W07430 261000 TC CENTRE N3100 W07600
--OTLK 212300 VA CLD APRX S16 E078 TO 517 E084 TO S18 E089 TO S19 E081 TO
S16 E078 220300 VA CLD PRX 517 E81 TO 518 E86 TO S20 E92 TO 521 E84 TO S17
E81.
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Example of SIGMET Message
AMSWELL FIR SEV TURB OBS AT 1210Z YUSB FL250 MOVE 40KMH WKN Meaning:
The fifth SIGMET message issued for the AMSWELL flight information region (identified
in abbreviated plain language and by YUCC Amswell area control center) by the
Donlord International' meteorological watch office (YUDO) since 0001 UTC; the
message is valid from 1215 UTC to 1600 UTC on the 22nd of the month; severe
turbulence was observed at 1210 UTC over Siby/Bistock aerodrome (YUSB) at flight
level 250; the turbulence is expected to move eastwards at 40 kilometres per hour and
to weaken in intensity.
AIRMET Information
surface visibility
(+ weather phenomenon)
thunderstorms
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mountain obscuration
cloud information
-- widespread areas of broken or overcast cloud with height of base less than 300 m (1
000ft) above ground level:
-- broken BKN CLD (+ height of the base and top and units)
-- overcast OVC CLD (+ height of the base and top and units)
-- isolated ISOL CB
-- occasional OCNL CB
-- frequent FRQ CB
icing
turbulence
mountain wave
AMSWELL FIR MOD MTW OBS AT 1205Z AND FCST N48 El0 FL080 STNR NC
Meaning:
The second AIRMET message issued for the AMSWELL flight information region
(identified in abbreviated plain language and by YUCC Amswell area control centre) by
the Donlon/International meteorological watch office (YUDO) since 0001 UTC; the
message is valid from 1215 UTC to 1600 UTC on the 22nd of the month; moderate
mountain wave was observed at 1205 UTC at 48 degrees north and 10 degrees east at
flight level 080; the mountain wave is expected to remain stationary and not to undergo
any changes in intensity.
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8. Pilot weather report
A pilot weather report (PIREP) is often the most timely source of information about
such weather conditions as icing and multiple cloud layers. While area forecasts and
freezing level charts can give the pilot a good idea of the potential for icing, only a
PIREP can let the pilot know what is happening currently.
Aircraft observations shall be reported during flight at the time the observation is made
or as soon thereafter as is practicable.
Routine aircraft observations and report are made at the meteorological service report
point in the regular flight. It produces automatically from the report system of the plane
in flight or report by the pilots.
The place that must carry, on routine observing and report is:
A. at which the applicable air traffic services procedures require routine position
reports; and
When voice communications are used, in the following situations, an aircraft shall be
exempted from making the routine observations:
E. the aircraft is at a distance equivalent to less than one hour of flying time from the
next intended point of landing; or
The special aircraft observations and report refers to the report to the special weather
phenomenon. Special observations shall be made by all aircraft whenever the following
conditions are encountered or observed:
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A. Severe turbulence; or severe icing; or severe mountain wave;
In addition, in the case of transonic and supersonic flights, the special observations
shall be made: moderate turbulence; or hail; or cumulonimbus clouds.
The Aircraft Observations and Reports During Climb-out Phases of the Flight
When other meteorological conditions not listed under (2), e.g. wind shear, are
encountered and which, in the opinion of the pilot-in-command, may affect the safety
or markedly affect the efficiency of other aircraft operations, the pilot-in-command shall
advise the appropriate air traffic services unit as soon as practicable.
When reporting aircraft observations of wind shear encountered during the climb-out
and approach phases of flight, the aircraft type should be included. Where wind shear
conditions in the climb-out or approach phases of flight were reported or forecast but
not encountered, the pilot-in-command should advise the appropriate air traffic
services unit as soon as practicable unless the pilot-in-command is aware that the
appropriate air traffic services unit has already been so advised by a preceding aircraft.
Content of Air-reports
When voice communications are used, the elements contained in routine and special
air-reports shall be:
Routine Air-reports
Flight level or altitude; Next position and time over; Ensuing significant point
(7) (8)
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Section 3. Meteorological information
Air temperature; Wind direction; Wind speed; Turbulence Aircraft icing; Humidity (if
available)
Special Air-reports
Aircraft identification; Position or latitude and longitude; Time: Flight Level or Altitude
A PIREP is transmitted in a prescribed format (see Figure 8-50). Required elements for
all PIREPs are type of repot,, location, time, flight level, aircraft type, and at least one
weather element encountered. When not required, elements without reported data are
omitted. All altitude references are mean sea level (MSL) unless otherwise noted.
Distance for visibility is in statute miles and all other distances are in nautical moles.
Time is in universal coordinated time (UTC).
Encoding PIREPs
URGENT (UUA) - Any PIREP that contains any of the following weather phenomena:
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Severe icing;
Hail;
Volcanic ash;
Low-level wind shear (LLWS): (Pilot reports air speed fluctuations of 10 notes or more
within 2 000 feet of the surface);
Any other weather phenomena reported which are considered by the controller to be
hazardous, or potentially hazardous to flight operations.
ROUTING (UA) - Any PIREP that contains weather phenomena not listed above,
including low-level wind shear reports with air speed fluctuations of less than 10 knots.
/OV -- Location:
Use VHF NAVAID (s) or an airport using the three- or four-letter location identifier.
Position can be over a site, at some location relative to a site, or along a route.
Ex:/OV ZGGG; /OV ZBAA 090025; /OV ZUGH 18010- SUUU; /OVZGGG-SGHK
/TM -- Time:
Four digits in UTC. Ex:/TMI015
Tree digits for hundreds of feet with no space between FL and altitude, If not known,
use UNKN. UNKN. Ex: FL095; FL310; FL
Describes cloud amount, height of cloud bases, and height of cloud topes. If unknown,
use UNKN.
Flight visibility (FV) reported first in standard METAR weather symbols. Intensity ( - for
light, no qualifier for moderate, and + for heavy ) shall be coded for all precipitation
types except ice crystal and hail.
If below zero, prefix with an "M." Temperature shall also be reported if icing is reported.
Ex: /TA 15; /TA M06.
/WV --Wind:
Direction from which the wind is blowing coded in tens of degrees using three digits.
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Directions of less than 100 degrees shall be preceded by a zero. The wind speed shall
be entered as a two- or three-digit group immediately following the direction, coded in
whole knots using the hundreds, tens, and units digits.
/TB -- Turbulence:
Use standard contractions for intensity and type (CAT or CHOP when appropriate).
Include altitude only if different from FL (see Figure 8-50).
Ex: /TB EXTRM; /TB OCNL LGT-MOD BLW090; /TB MOD-SEV CHOP 080-110.
/IC -- Icing:
Describe using standard intensity and type contractions. Include altitude only if
different from FL(see Figure 8-51 ).
/RM -- Remarks:
Use free form to clarify the report purring hazardous element first.
Turbulence in which the aircraft in violently tossed about and is practically impossible to
Extreme
control. It may cause structural damage. Report as extreme turbulence or extreme CAT.
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Icing and turbulence reports state intensities using standard terminology when
possible. To lessen the chance of misinterpretation, report icing and turbulence in
standard terminology. If a PIR~P stated, "...PRETTY ROUGH AT 6 500, SMOOTH AT
8,500 PA 24...," there could be many interpretations of the turbulence at 6 500 feet. A
report of "light," or "severe" turbulence at 6 500 feet would have been more concise
and understandable. If a pilot's description of an icing or turbulence encounter cannot
readily be translated into standard terminology, the pilot's description should be
transmitted verbatim.
1) Turbulence Figure 8-51 classifies each turbulence intensity according to its effect
on aircraft control, structural integrity, and articles and occupants within the aircraft.
Pilots should report location(s), time (UTC), altitude, aircraft type, whether in or near
clouds, intensity,, and when applicable, type (CHOP/clear air turbulence [CAT]), and
duration of turbulence. Duration may be based on the time the pilot is flying between
two locations or over a single location.
High-level turbulence (normally above 15 000 feet above ground level [AGL]) that is not
associated with cumuliform clouds (including thunderstorms) shall be reported as CAT.
2) Icing Figure 8-52 classifies each icing intensity according to its operational effects
on aircraft.
Trace Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation slightly greater than Location time altitude/FL
rate of sublimation. It is not hazardous even though deicing/anti- aircraft type, temperature
icing equipment is not used unless encountered for an extended and icing intensity and type.
period of time (over 1 hr)
Light The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is Location time altitude/FL
prolonged in this environment (over 1Hr).Occasional use of aircraft type, temperature
deicing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It and icing intensity and type.
does not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing equipment is
used.
Moderate The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become Location time altitude/FL
potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment is aircraft type, temperature
diversion is necessary. and icing intensity and type.
Severe The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-icing equipment Location time altitude/FL
fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate diversion is aircraft type, temperature
necessary. and icing intensity and type.
Figure 8-52 Icing Intensities, Airframe Ice Accumulation and pilot report.
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Pilots should report location(s), time (UTC), altitude, aircraft type, temperature, and
icing intensity and type (rime, clear, or mixed). Rime ice is rough, milky, opaque ice
formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets. Clear ice is
a glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large
supercooled water droplets. Mixed ice is a combination of rime and clear ice.
1) FTW UA/OV DFW 18005 /TM1803/FL095/TP PA 30/SK 036 OVC 060/070 OVC 075 /
OVC ABV
TP PA 30 -- Type of aircraft is a PA 30
2) UA/OV KOKC 090064 /TM 1522/FL080 /TP C172 /SK SCT090-TOP UNKN /WX
FV05SM HZ/TAM04/WV 24540KT/TB LGT/RM IN CLR.
This PIERP in decoded as follows: UA, 64 nautical miles east of Oklahoma City VOR at
1522UTC, flight level 8,000 feet MSL. Type of aircraft is a Cessna 172. There is a
scattered cloud layer with bases at 9,000 feet MSL and unknown tops. Flight visibility
is restricted to 5 statute miles due to haze. Outside air temperature is -4 degrees
Celsius, wind is 245 degrees at 40 knots, light turbulence, and the aircraft is in clear
skies.
3) UUA/OV ORD /TM 1235 /FL UNKN /TP B727 /TB MOD/RM LLWS +/- 20KT BLW
003 DURD RWY27L.
Urgent UA over Chicago O Hare Airport, Chicago, IL, at 1235Z. Flight level is unknown
but the information is from a Boeing 727. Turbulence was moderate and on decent to
runway 27 left, low-level wind shear was detected below 300 feet. Airspeed
fluctuations were plus and minus 20 knots.
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9. Observations and reports of volcanic activity
The occurrence of pre-emption volcanic activity,, volcanic eruptions and volcanic ash
cloud should be reported without delay to the associated air traffic services unit,
aeronautical information services unit and meteorological watch office. The report
should be made in the form of a volcanic activity report comprising the following
information in the order indicated:
Meaning:
Volcanic activity report issued by Siby/Bistock meteorological station at 1500 UTC on
the 23rd of the month. Mt Trojeen volcano 56 degrees 5 minutes north 126 degrees 52
minutes west erupted at 1445 UTC on the 23rd; a large ash cloud was observed
extending to approximately 30 000 feet and moving in a south-westerly direction.
• tropical cyclone;
• thunderstorm;
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• hail;
• snow;
• freezing precipitation;
• sandstorm;
• duststorm;
• squall;
• frost.
Wind shear conditions are normally associated with the following phenomena:
• Frontal surfaces;
Wind shear warnings should be prepared in abbreviated plain language. Wind shear in
the approach area should be reported.
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Example 1
"WS WRNG SURFACE WIND 320/20KMH WIND AT 60M 360/50KMH IN APCH".
"WS WRNG SURFACE WIND 320/10KT WIND AT 60M 360/25KT IN APCH".
Where microbursts are observed, reported by pilots or detected by ground-based wind
shear detection or remote-sensing equipment, the wind shear warning should include a
specific reference to microburst.
Example 2
"WS WRNG MBST APCII RWY 26'.
Where information from ground-based wind shear detection or remote-sensing
equipment is used to prepare a wind shear warning, the warning should, if practicable,
relate to specific sections of the runway and distances along the approach path or
take-off path as agreed between the meteorological authority,, the appropriate NFS
authority and the operators concerned.
Example 3
"WS WRNG 30KT AIRSPEED LOSS 2NM FINAL RWY 13' or "WS WRNG 60KMH
AIRSPEED LOSS 4KM FINAL RWY 13".
Example 4
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