FTec151 Food Processing 1

1. Explain briefly the reason why spoilage of banana, lemon and wilting of kangkong leaves
occur.

Most fruits and vegetables go bad because of damage caused by microorganisms such as
bacteria and mold, enzymatic processes or bruising. Microorganisms speed produce
deterioration through structural decay.  Microorganisms such as bacteria and molds release
their own enzymes as they grow, speeding up the spoiling process. Enzymes, which occur
naturally in live fruits and vegetables, are part of the natural aging process. Enzymatic
browning leads to discoloration and later, spoilage.  Bruising physically alters the exterior of
your fruits and vegetables, which trigger enzymatic reactions.

How you store your fruits and vegetables has a significant impact on their lifespan. Cold
temperatures are best for slowing down respiration — but do not store produce inside airtight
containers, because the total lack of respiration will speed decay.  Exceptions are onions,
garlic and potatoes, which are best stored outside of your refrigerator in a cool, dry and dark
space.

Fruits emit ethylene gas, which speeds ripening, and some vegetables are more sensitive
than others.  Incompatible combinations include apples and apricots stored with spinach,
lettuce or other leafy greens.

Some fruits ripen after they are picked. Strawberries, cherries and grapes ripen on the plant. 
Once you pick them, they may get softer due to the natural deterioration of plant matter, but
they will never get any sweeter. Once picked, these fruits are as ripe as they will ever get.
Fruits that don’t ripen after picking should be refrigerated immediately. Other fruits that fall
into this category are apples, blueberries, raspberries, tangerines, oranges, limes and
blackberries.

Fresh cut fruit always requires refrigeration. Whether the fruit was cut before you bought it or
whether you cut it up, that fruit needs to be refrigerated.  Soft fruits that have been cut up,
fruits like mangoes or melons, typically have a shelf life of two days or less even if they are
refrigerated. Fruits containing more acid or harder fruits have a slightly longer shelf life. 
Anytime you cut open a fruit, you accelerate the ripening process and expose that fruit to
bacteria, mold and fungus.  For both food safety reasons and food quality reasons, keep cut
fruit in the refrigerator.

Ethylene is a small hydrocarbon gas. It is naturally occurring, but it can also occur as a result
of combustion and other processes. You can’t see or smell it. Some fruit will produce
ethylene as ripening begins.  Mangoes, apples and pears are examples of fruit that produce
ethylene with ripening. Ethylene is responsible for the changes in texture, softening, color,
and other processes involved in ripening. Fruits such as cherries and blueberries do not
produce much ethylene and it doesn’t influence their ripening.

Ethylene is thought of as the aging hormone in plants.  In addition to causing fruit to ripen, it
can cause plants to die. It can be produced when plants are injured, either mechanically or
by disease. 

2. Briefly explain the reason why do foods get spoiled.

 Food spoils when it gets old. This is because food contains bacteria
which is invisible to the naked eye. Over time, the bacteria grows and
breaks down proteins and other substances found in food. When that
happens, we can say that the food is spoilt.
Spoilt food can have an unpleasant smell or can taste different. It can
also become softer than normal and change in colour or texture.

3. Explain why do fried chips lose their crunchiness when exposed to air for an extended
time.

The answer is humidity. There is always water in our air, it’s just a matter of how
much. Chip bags are now packaged with a shot of nitrogen that keeps the humidity
out of the sealed bag. Once you break that seal, in goes the moisture. Food saver
and other vacuum machines can help but you basically start the clock to crackers and
chips losing their crunch. The trick is don’t open them until you’re ready to use them
and then seal them up when you’re done and try to squeeze out as much air as you
can without turning your chips to dust.

In the bag the contents are in what is termed an isolated system- no energy or
matter either enters of leaves that ‘environment’, being the bag. As soon as the bag
is opened it becomes an open system. Both energy and matter can now flow into
and out of the system ( bag). The most obvious intrusion to the system now is air. Air
contains moisture. As soon as moist air comes in contact with the chips or crackers it
begins a slow process of saturation as a type of osmosis occurs. This will cause the
chips structure to slowly weaken and break down (soften).

4. When can you say that browning is desirable for processed food, and when it will become
undesirable? Elaborate your explanation and provide examples.

UNIT 10 - BROWNING
INTRODUCTION
Browning is the process of food turning brown due to the chemical reactions that take place
within. The process of food browning is one of the most important reactions that take place
in food chemistry and represents an interesting research topic regarding health, nutrition,
and food technology.
Though there are many different ways food chemically changes over time, browning in
particular falls into main 2 categories,
1.    Enzymatic and
2.    Non-enzymatic processes.
The browning process of foods may yield desirable or undesirable results, depending on the
type of food.

Enzymatic Browning

 Enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions that takes place in most
fruits and vegetables as well as in seafood.
 These processes affect the taste, color, and value of such foods. 
 Generally, it is a chemical reaction involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol oxidase,
and other enzymes that create melanin's and benzoquinone from natural phenols. 
 Enzymatic browning (also called oxidation of foods) requires exposure to oxygen. 
 It begins with the oxidation of Phenols by Polyphenol oxidase into Quinones.

Examples:
Developing color and flavor in Coffee, Cocoa beans, and tea.
Developing color and flavor in dried fruit such as figs and raisins.

Non-enzymatic browning

 It is a process that also produces the brown pigmentation in foods, but without the
activity of enzymes. 
 The two main forms of non-enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard
reaction. 
 Examples non-enzymatic browning:
 Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, and black spots on peels
bananas and avocados.
 Polyphenols oxidases is the major reaction in the formation of Melanosis in
crustaceans such as shrimp. 

Caramelisation

 Caramelisation is the oxidation of sugar, a process used extensively in cooking for the
resulting nutty flavor and brown color.
  Caramelization is a type of non-enzymatic browning reaction. 
 As the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released producing the characteristic
caramel flavor. 
 The reaction involves the removal of water (as steam) and the break down of the
sugar. 
 The caramelization reaction depends on the type of sugar. Sucrose and glucose
caramelize around 160 degree C (320 degree F) and fructose caramelizes at 110 degree C
(230 degree F).
 The highest rate of the color development is caused by fructose as caramelization of
fructose starts at 110 degree C. Baked goods made from honey or fructose syrup will
therefore give a darker color.

Maillard reaction

 The Maillard reaction, creates flavor and changes the color of food. 
 Maillard reactions generally only begin to occur above 285°F (140°C). 
 Until the Maillard reaction occurs meat will have less flavor.
 The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a reducing
sugar, usually requiring the addition of heat.
  Like caramelization, it is a form of non-enzymatic browning. 
 The Maillard reaction occurs between reducing sugars and principally free amino
acids and peptides (usually from proteins) when heated.
  The reaction is also known as the browning reaction.
 Browning by the Maillard reaction occurs more quickly in alkaline than in acid
conditions and also at intermediate water activities. The reaction is also time/temperature
related. 
 Thus baking at low temperatures slowly gives the same colour results as baking at
high temperatures quickly provided that the atmosphere around the product does not
become too dry.
 The Maillard reaction is most important for the production of brown hues on the
surface of baked biscuits. The inclusion in biscuit dough of glucose or invert syrups is to
ensure that the Maillard reaction occurs as required. If there is excessive Maillard reaction it
may be difficult to dry the biscuit without too much colour formation. Sometimes proteins
are added as milk powders. Milk contributes lactose which is a reducing sugar. The Maillard
reaction contributes flavours to baked products.
 It reduces the nutritional value of food.

Prevention of Enzymatic Browning

Enzymatic browning is the second largest cause of quality loss in fruits and vegetables.
Chemical, physical (blanching, freezing), controlled atmosphere and coating methods, can
be used to prevent enzymatic browning .
1. Treatment with antioxidant agents
 Antioxidants can prevent the initiation of browning by reacting with oxygen.
2. Treatment with agents of firmness 
Calcium salts are the best known; they are used in the strengthening of cell walls. The cell
walls are more stable to different treatments.

3. Treatment with acidifying agents 

PPO is sensitive to pH variations. The fruit is a naturally acidic environment, additional
acidification may reduce the PPO activity or inactivate it below pH 3.
4. Blanching 
Blanching food is a heat treatment. Blanching treatments are presented according to the
heat medium used: blanching in boiling water and/or in steam; blanching by using
microwave was also developed the last years. The blanching time varies depending on the
technique used, the type of product, size or maturity status.
This process inactivates the enzymatic systems responsible for sensory and vitaminic
alterations . In addition, the colours of plants are heightened, for better presentation.
5. Freezing 
Freezing is a technique often used to stop browning reactions in fruit. Indeed, freezing
causes a decrease in available water for enzymatic reactions.
6. Conservation in modified atmosphere 
Oxygen is essential for the oxidation reaction and PPO activity, a solution to control
enzymatic browning reactions would be to change the oxygen content of the storage
atmosphere. The studies dealt with modified atmosphere packaging, by modifying the
composition of atmosphere, showed that the enzymatic systems are delayed without altering
product quality
7. Coating 
The coating agents are usually used to extend the shelf-life of fruits during their storage. It
consists on the application of a layer of any edible material on the surface of fruit. Actions of
these agents deal with the decrease of moisture and aroma losses, the delaying of colour
changes and gas transfer, and the improvement of the general appearance of the product
through storage.

5. Explain how the 5 phase conditions affect the lag phase of the growth of microorganisms.

Lag phase
Lag phases is one of the earliest phases in the bacterial growth cycle. In this phase, the bacteria
tends to adapt itself to the growth conditions. Here, the individual bacteria matures but does not
divide yet. In this stage of the cycle of growth, enzymes, RNA and various molecules are
synthesized. As cells are not promptly reproduced into a new medium in this stage, cells do not
exhibit a lot of changes, in fact, minute changes are observed in this stage. Hence, this stage is
often misunderstood. This stage of almost no division is the lag phase, ranging from merely 60
minutes to a couple of days. Although cells do not divide in this stage, they are not dormant.
This is a tentative duration of non-replication observed in bacteria initiated into a new medium.
This phase is said to be an organized, dynamic and adaptive stage which safeguards bacteria
against threats and fosters reproductive flexibility. It pertains to antibiotic tolerance, host-
pathogen interactions, food safety, molecular biology and more.

Obtaining Bacterial Growth Curve – Lag Phase

Bacteria do not start prompt multiplication and take a while after a liquid batch culture is
inoculated. This period between the beginning of multiplication and the inoculation is the lag
phase. Here, the bacteria that is inoculated adapts to the conditions, activates enzymes and adapts
to the ambient temperature and other conditions. It is during this phase that the bacteria increases
in size, however, there is no change in the number of bacterial cells. They are just metabolically
active. This period of lag phase is subject to changes, given the type of culture medium, bacterial
species, temperature (incubation), etc.
Factors influencing Lag phase
There are several elements affecting the period of lag phase such as the inoculum size,
physiochemical environment of the new and old growth medium, cell’s physiological history,
etc. In order to gain reproducible lag times, a standardized bacterial inoculum must be deployed
under steady growth conditions.

Bacterial growth curve: phases and significance

This bacterial growth curve reflects the events in bacterial population when they are grown in a
closed system of microbial culture of fixed volume (i.e. batch culture).The typical growth curve for
population of cells can be divided into several distinct phases called the lag phase, log phase,
stationary phase and death phase.

Lag phase

When a microbial population is inoculated into a fresh medium, growth usually does not begin
immediately but only after a period of time called the lag phase, which may be brief or extended
depending on the history of culture and growth conditions.

Condition of bacterial culture used:

1. Exponentially growing culture inoculated into same medium: no lag phase.
2. Old or stationary culture inoculated into same medium: lag phase (time required for bacteria to
synthesize essential cell constituent and to be able to go for binary fission).
3. Damaged bacterial culture (heat, radiation or toxic chemicals): long lag phase (time required to
repair damage cells and  time required to synthesize cell constituents)
Log phase (exponential phase)
In this phase, bacterial cell numbers doubles during each unit time period (i.e. generation time). For
example: a culture containing 1,000 organisms per ml with a generation time of 20 minutes would
contain 2,000 organisms per ml after 20 minute, 4,000 after 40 minute, 8,000 after 60 minutes,
16,000 after 120 minutes. The generation time of most bacteria is between 20 minutes to 20
hours. Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae has longer generation time.
When the cell number from such  experiment is graphed on arithmetic coordinates as function of
elapsed time, one obtains a curve with a constantly increasing slope. The rate of increase in cell
number is slow initially but in later stage the cell numbers increases explosively. The rate of
exponential growth varies between bacterial genera (i.e. genetic characteristics of bacteria) and is
also influenced by cultural conditions.
Logarithmic growth can be maintained using a device, chemostat. Chemostat has reservoir and
growth chamber. Fresh medium is continuously added to the growth chamber and the old medium is
taken out.
Interesting and unbelievable fact about bacterial growth: If a single bacterium (having weight 10-
12
 gram) with a generation time of 20 min continued to grow exponentially for 48 hour, produce a
population that weighed about 4000 times the weight of the earth.
Stationary phase
The number of new cells produced balances the number of cells that die, resulting in a steady
state. In batch culture, exponential growth cannot occur indefinitely because the essential nutrients of
the culture medium are used and waste products of organisms accumulate in the environment. In
stationary phase there is no net increase or decrease in cell number. The cells functions such as
energy metabolism and some biosynthetic processes go on. (Note: cells grown in  chemostat  do not
enter the stationary phase)
Death phase
If incubation continues after a bacterial population reaches the stationary phase, the cells may start
dying. Cell death may be due to cell lysis and this is also an exponential process but much slower
than that of exponential growth. During the decline phase many cells undergo involution, i.e. they
assume a variety of unusual shapes. Spore forming organisms forms spore as a part of survival
mechanisms.

Growth of Microorganisms (With

Diagram)
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Growth of Microorganisms (With Diagram)

The growth of microorganisms is a highly complex and coordinated
process, ultimately expressed by increase in cell number or cell mass.
The process of growth depends on the availability of requisite
nutrients and their transport into the cells, and the environmental
factors such as aeration, O2 supply, temperature and pH.
Doubling time refers to the time period required for doubling the
weight of the biomass while generation time represents the period for
doubling the cell numbers. Doubling times normally increase with
increasing cell size and complicity as given below.

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Bacteria 0.30 – 1 hour

Yeasts 1 – 2 hours
Animal cells 25 -48 hours

Plant cells 20 -70 hours

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In general, when all other conditions are kept ideal, growth of the
microorganisms is dependent on the substrate (nutrient) supply. The
microorganisms can be grown in batch, fed-batch, semi-continuous or
continuous culture systems in a bioreactor.

A diagrammatic representation of microbial cell growth in relation to

substrate is depicted in Fig. 19.11. In batch fermentation, the growth
medium containing the substrates is inoculated with microorganisms,
and the fermentation proceeds without the addition of fresh growth
medium.

In fed-batch fermentation, substrates are added at short time intervals

during fermentation. In batch and fed-batch fermentation, the growth
of the cells is quite comparable. And in both cases, growth medium is
not removed until the end of fermentation process.
In case of continuous fermentation, as the fermentation proceeds,
fresh growth medium is added continuously. Simultaneously, an equal
volume of spent medium containing suspended microorganisms is
removed. This enables the cells to grow optimally and continuously
(Fig. 19.11C).

Batch Culture or Batch Fermentation:

A batch fermentation is regarded as a closed system. The sterile
nutrient culture medium in the bioreactor is inoculated with
microorganisms. The incubation is carried out under optimal
physiological conditions (pH, temperature, O 2 supply, agitation etc.). It
may be necessary to add acid or alkali to maintain pH, and anti-foam
agents to minimise foam. Under optimal conditions for growth, the
following six typical phases of growth are observed in batch
fermentation (Fig. 19.12).

1. Lag phase

2. Acceleration phase

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3. Logarithmic (log) phase (exponential phase)

4. Deceleration phase

5. Stationary phase
6. Death phase.

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1. Lag phase:
The initial brief period of culturing after inoculation is referred to as
lag phase. During the lag phase, the microorganisms adapt to the new
environment—available nutrients, pH etc. There is no increase in the
cell number, although the cellular weight may slightly increase.

The length of the lag phase is variable and is mostly determined by the
new set of physiological conditions, and the phase at which the micro-
organisms were existing when inoculated. For instance, lag phase may
not occur if the culture inoculated is at exponential phase (i.e., log
phase), and growth may start immediately.

2. Acceleration phase:
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This is a brief transient period during which cells start growing slowly.
In fact, acceleration phase connects the lag phase and log phase.

3. Log phase:
The most active growth of microorganisms and multiplication occur
during log phase. The cells undergo several doublings and the cell
mass increases. When the number of cells or biomass is plotted
against time on a semi logarithmic graph, a straight line is obtained,
hence the term log phase.

Growth rate of microbes in log phase is independent of substrate

(nutrient supply) concentration as long as excess substrate is present,
and there are no growth inhibitors in the medium. In general, the
specific growth rate of microorganisms for simpler substrates is
greater than for long chain molecules. This is explained on the basis of
extra energy needed to split long chain substrates.

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Two log phases are observed when a complex nutrient medium with
two substrates is used in fermentation, and this phenomenon is
referred to as diauxy. This happens since one of the substrates is
preferentially metabolised first which represses the breakdown of
second substrate. After the first substrate is completely degraded
second lag phase occurs, during which period, the enzymes for the
breakdown of second substrate the synthesized. Now a second log
phase occurs.

4. Deceleration phase:
As the growth rate of microorganisms during log phase decreases, they
enter the deceleration phase. This phase is usually very short-lived and
may not be observable.

5. Stationary phase:
As the substrate in the growth medium gets depleted, and the
metabolic end products that are formed inhibit the growth, the cells
enter the stationary phase. The microbial growth may either slow
down or completely stop. The biomass may remain almost constant
during stationary phase. This phase, however, is frequently associated
with dramatic changes in the metabolism of the cells which may
produce compounds (secondary metabolites) of biotechnological
importance e.g. production of antibiotics.

6. Death phase:
This phase is associated with cessation of metabolic activity and
depletion of energy reserves. The cells die at an exponential rate (a
straight line may be obtained when the number of surviving cells are
plotted against time on a semi logarithmic plot). In the commercial
and industrial fermentations, the growth of the microorganisms is
halted at the end of the log phase or just before the death phase
begins, and the cells are harvested.

Fed-Batch Culture or Fed-Batch Fermentation:

Fed-batch fermentation (See Fig. 19.11) is an improvement of batch
fermentation wherein the substrate is added in increments at different
times throughout the course of fermentation (Note: In batch culture
method, substrate is added only at the beginning of the fermentation).
Periodical substrate addition prolongs log and stationary phases which
results in an increased biomass. Consequently, production of
metabolites (e.g. antibiotics) during stationary phase is very much
increased.

As it is difficult to directly measure substrate concentration in fed-

batch fermentation, other indicators that correlate with substrate
consumption are used. The formation of organic acids, production of
CO2 and changes in pH may be measured, and accordingly substrate
addition carried out. In general, fed-batch fermentation requires more
careful monitoring than batch fermentation, and is therefore not a
preferred method by industrial biotechnologists.
Fed-batch fermentation for the production of recombinant
proteins:
In recent years, fed-batch fermentation has become popular, due to
very high yield, for the production of recombinant proteins.
Depending on the microorganism and the nature of recombinant
protein, the fed-batch fermentation can increase the product yield
from 25% to 1000% compared to batch fermentation. Careful
monitoring of the fermentation reaction and appropriate addition of
substrates (carbon and nitrogen sources, and trace metals)
substantially increases the product yield.

Limitations:
The major limitation of fed batch fermentation is that the
microorganisms in the stationary phase produce proteolytic enzymes
or proteases. These enzyme attack the recombinant proteins that are
being produced. By carefully monitoring the fermentation, the log
phase can be prolonged and the onset of stationary phase is delayed.
By this way, the formation of proteases can be minimised.

Fed-batch cultures for higher organisms:

Fed-batch cultures are successfully employed for mammalian and
insect cells. This is very advantageous for the production of human
therapeutic proteins with good yield.

Semi-Continuous Culture or Semi-Continuous

Fermentation:
Some of the products of fermentation are growth-linked, and such
products are formed at the end of the log phase e.g. ethanol
production. In semi-continuous fermentation, a portion of the culture
medium is removed from the bioreactor and replaced by fresh medium
(identical in nutrients, pH, temperature etc.).

This process of culture medium change can be repeated at appropriate

intervals. In the semi-continuous fermentation, the lag phase and
other nonproductive phases are very much shortened. The product
output is much higher compared to batch culture systems. Semi-
continuous fermentation technique has been successfully used in the
industrial production of alcohol. There are however, certain
disadvantages of semi-continuous fermentation. These include the
technical difficulties of handling bioreactors, long culture periods that
may lead to contamination, mutation and mechanical breakdown.

Continuous Culture or Continuous Fermentation:

Continuous fermentation is an open system. It involves the removal of
culture medium continuously and replacement of this with a fresh
sterile medium in a bioreactor. Both addition and removal are done at
the same rate so that the working volume remains constant.

Further, to maintain a steady state condition in continuous process, it

is advisable that the cell loss as a result of outflow is balanced by
growth of the organisms. The two common types of continuous
fermentation and bioreactors are described below (Fig. 19.13).
Homogeneously mixed bioreactors:
In this type, the culture solution is homogeneously mixed, and the
bioreactors are of two types

Chemostat bioreactors:
The concentration of any one of the substrates (carbohydrate, nitrogen
source, salts, O2) is adjusted to control the cell growth and maintain a
steady state.
Turbidostat bioreactors:
In this case, turbidity measurement is used to monitor the biomass
concentration. The rate of addition of nutrient solution can be
appropriately adjusted to maintain a constant cell growth.

Plug flow bioreactors:

In plug flow bioreactors, the culture solution flows through a tubular
reaction vessel without back mixing. The composition of the medium,
the quantity of cells, O2 supply and product formation vary at different
locations in the bioreactor. Microorganisms along with nutrient
medium are continuously added at the entrance of the bioreactor.
Industrial applications of continuous fermentation:
Continuous fermentation processes have been used for the production
of antibiotics, organic solvents, single-cell protein, beer and ethanol,
besides waste-water treatment.

Advantages of continuous fermentation:

1. The size of the bioreactor and other equipment used in continuous
fermentation are relatively smaller compared to batch fermentation
for the production of the same quantity of product.

2. The yield of the product is more consistent since the physiological

state of the cells is uniform.

3. The ‘down time’ between two successive fermentations for cleaning

and preparing the bioreactor for reuse is avoided in continuous
fermentation.

4. Continuous fermentation can be run in a cost-effective manner.

Disadvantages of continuous fermentation:
Despite many advantages of continuous fermentation (described
above), it is not very widely used in industries. Some of the drawbacks
are listed.

1. Continuous fermentation may run continuously for a period of 500

to 1,000 hours. Maintenance of sterile conditions for such a long
period is difficult.

2. The recombinant cells with plasmid constructs cannot function

continuously and therefore the product yield decreases.

3. It is not easy to maintain the same quality of the culture medium for
all the additions. Nutrient variations will alter the growth and
physiology of the cells, and consequently the product yield.

In addition to the disadvantages listed above, industrial

biotechnologists are rather reluctant to switch over to continuous
fermentation from the batch fermentation. However, it is expected
that continuous fermentation will also become, popular in due course.

Growth Kinetics of Microorganisms:

The different types of fermentation processes- batch, fed-batch, semi-
continuous and continuous are described above. The kinetics of
microbial growth with special reference to log phase of batch
fermentation are briefly discussed here.

After completion of lag phase, the cell enters log phase which is
characterized by exponential growth (See Fig. 19.12). If the initial
number of cells is N0, then
After 1st generation, the cell number will be N0 × 21.
After 2nd generation, the cell number will be N0 x 22.
After 3rd generation, N0 × 23 and so on. Thus, the number of cells after
a given time (Nt) will be as follows:
Nt = N0 x 2n
where n is the number of generations.
The term doubling time (td) or mean generation time (MGT) refers to
the time taken for doubling the cell number or biomass. The specific
growth rate constant expressed by µ, is the direct measure of rate of
growth of the organism. If N is the number of cells at a given time,
then the increase in the number of cells (growth rate) with time is
given by the formula.

dN/dt = µN (1)

If X is the biomass concentration at a given time, then the increase in

the biomass (growth rate) with time is given by.

dX/dt = µX (2)

In general, the specific growth rate (n) is a function of the

concentration of limiting substrate (S), the maximum specific growth
rate (µmax) and a substrate specific constant (Ks). Their relationship was
expressed by Monond by the following equation
µ = µmax S/ Ks + S (3)
Both S and Ks are expressed as concentrations e.g., in moles or grams
per liter.
The growth rate (µ) of an organism is not fixed but it is variable
depending on the environmental conditions such as concentration of
substrate and temperature. At a low concentration, the substrate is the
limiting factor for growth (Fig. 19.14A). The Fig. 19.14B represents the
growth rate for a given substrate concentration (by plotting against S).
In batch culture, the substrate is initially present at a higher
concentration i.e. (S) > Ks, hence the equation (3) is approximately 1.
S/ Ks + S = 1
Thus, µ = µmax.
When the substrate concentration is low, as usually occurs at the end
of growth phase, then,

S/ Ks + S < 1
Hence µ < µmax.
 6. Which of the conditions is ideal for the prevention of food spoilage due to the growth of
microorganisms? Elaborate your answer.

How to Prevent Bacterial Growth in Food

Prevention is always best when it comes to food-borne illness. According to The
Partnership for Food Safety Education, food poisoning can cause long-term problems.
Kidney failure can result from E. coli, arthritis from Campylobacter, and stillbirths from
Listeria.

**Spoilage bacteria is what makes food in the refrigerator look and smell bad, but
usually does not cause illness.

** Pathogenic bacteria do make you sick.

These are invisible and generally do not smell or taste bad. Proper food handling is
the only defense.
Store Food Safely

Select produce with a critical eye to avoid bruised or damaged food. Make sure it is
refrigerated in the store. Plan to select meat last so it doesn't sit in the cart warming up.

Do grocery shopping last so groceries do not sit in the car. When weather is very hot or
you will be delayed getting home, bring a cooler to keep meats and perishables cold. At
home, put groceries in the refrigerator immediately.

Set the refrigerator below 40 degrees Fahrenheit and the freezer below 0 degrees
Fahrenheit. Don't overload the refrigerator. Cool air must be able to circulate to keep
food at the proper temperature.

Store canned food away from very high or low temperatures. Do not use cans that are
dented or bulging. Read and follow expiration dates.

Stop bacteria growth by freezing food. Package it properly in freezer bags with the date
clearly marked. Freezing does not kill bacteria so after thawing, cook promptly.

 Select produce with a critical eye to avoid bruised or damaged food.

 When weather is very hot or you will be delayed getting home, bring a cooler to keep
meats and perishables cold.
Prepare Food Correctly
Wash fruits and vegetables including bagged salad under cold running water to rinse
bacteria off the surface before using. Use the refrigerator for thawing slowly, or the
microwave for the fastest thaw. Always marinate food in the refrigerator.
Cook all food to the proper temperature to kill bacteria. Most foods should be heated to
165 degrees Fahrenheit to kill bacteria. Purchase a good quality meat thermometer
to check for safe temperatures. Keep hot food at least 145 degrees.
Use small containers to store leftovers so they cool quickly. Do not use food that
has been out at room temperature longer than 2 hours. Reheat leftovers to a safe 165
degrees.

Wash and dry hands before and during food preparation. If you are not sure about the
quality or safety of food, throw it out.

Tips

Purchase a thermometer to check the temperature of your refrigerator and freezer.

Irradiated food has been treated to kill bacteria. These foods still need to handled
properly in the event that bacteria has survived.

When the power goes out, do not open refrigerator or freezer doors. If you will be
without electricity for more than a day, get dry ice or regular ice to preserve food.

 Wash fruits and vegetables including bagged salad under cold running water to rinse
bacteria off the surface before using.
 Purchase a good quality meat thermometer to check for safe temperatures.

Four Conditions for Bacterial Growth

Bacteria grow in very diverse conditions, which explains why they are found
nearly everywhere on Earth. Although bacteria are good at adapting to their
environments, certain conditions promote bacterial growth more than others. These
conditions include temperature, moisture, pH and environmental oxygen. Understanding
the optimal conditions for bacterial growth can potentially help you reduce your risk for
bacterial infections and food poisoning.
Warm Temperature
Most disease-causing bacteria thrive in warm temperatures, especially those close to
body temperature. The human body, therefore, provides an ideal environment for many
types of bacteria to grow. Certain strains of bacteria, however, can grow at lower or
higher temperatures. Since ideal temperature is crucial for the growth of any given
species of bacteria, food must be handled appropriately to avoid food
poisoning. In most cases -- but not all -- refrigerating or freezing food is sufficient
to suppress the growth disease-causing bacteria, such as
Staphylococcus. Thoroughly cooking meats and poultry to the correct internal
temperature is also important to kill harmful bacteria that may be present in the food,
such as Salmonella and E. coli.

 Most disease-causing bacteria thrive in warm temperatures, especially those close to

body temperature.
 In most cases -- but not all -- refrigerating or freezing food is sufficient to suppress the
growth disease-causing bacteria, such as Staphylococcus.

Moisture
Bacteria need water to grow and die without a water source. Moist areas are
particularly prone to bacterial growth, such as bathrooms and kitchens. Water content in
food also provides an excellent environment for many types of bacteria to grow. Certain
foods can be dehydrated or freeze-dried, which removes most of the water and can
allow for longer storage without bacterial growth. Moist tissues in the body, such as the
mouth and nose, provide an excellent source of moisture for bacteria and are
particularly prone to bacterial growth.

 Bacteria need water to grow and die without a water source.

 Moist tissues in the body, such as the mouth and nose, provide an excellent source of
moisture for bacteria and are particularly prone to bacterial growth.

Environmental pH

The pH of an environment -- a measure of its acidity or alkalinity -- is important for

bacterial growth. Most strains of disease-causing bacteria prefer to grow in conditions
with a near neutral pH, similar to the pH of the human body. Some strains of bacteria,
however, can live in more acidic or more alkaline conditions. Cleaning solutions are
typically highly acidic or basic, which kills bacteria, because they cannot survive at
these extremes of pH.

The acidity of food is also an important factor affecting bacterial growth 1⭐

⭐This is a verified and trusted source

U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Bacterial Pathogen Growth and Inactivation

Goto Source

. More acidic foods can typically be stored longer without spoiling. Preserving agents that increase
the acidity of food, such as citric acid, are commonly added to help prevent bacterial
growth and allow for longer storage. Vinegar and lemon juice have a similar effect.

 The pH of an environment -- a measure of its acidity or alkalinity -- is important for

bacterial growth.
  Preserving agents that increase the acidity of food, such as citric acid, are commonly
added to help prevent bacterial growth and allow for longer storage.

Environmental Oxygen

The presence of oxygen can greatly affect the growth of bacteria. Many types of
disease-causing bacteria grow best in an oxygen-rich environment or require oxygen to
grow. This is why many commercial foods are vacuum-sealed. Vacuum sealing -- also
known as reduced oxygen packaging -- inhibits the growth of many types of bacteria
and fungi that cause food spoilage. Once the vacuum seal is broken, exposure to the
environment and oxygen limits the shelf life. Keeping food properly sealed while during
storage is a good preventive measure against bacterial growth because it restricts the
amount of oxygen. Proper sealing is also important when doing home canning for
similar reasons.

While reduced oxygen inhibits the growth of many types of bacteria that can spoil
food, there are others that thrive in the absence of oxygen. Two important
examples are Clostridium botulinum -- the bacteria responsible for botulism -- and
Listeria monocytogenes, another food-borne bacteria that is particularly harmful to
pregnant women, newborns and people with a weakened immune system.

Reviewed and revised by: Tina M. St. John, M.D.

 The presence of oxygen can greatly affect the growth of bacteria.

 Keeping food properly sealed while during storage is a good preventive measure against
bacterial growth because it restricts the amount of oxygen.

7. Write a reaction paper on this news report. Visit

httpa://www.manilatimes.net/2019/11/05/news/latest-stories//29-earthquake-victims-
treated-for-food-poisoning-in-north-cotabato/653747/

The Manila Times Newsletter

29 earthquake victims treated for
food poisoning in North Cotabato
Twenty-nine persons displaced by the series of earthquakes in Mindanao

were downed by food poisoning on Monday and were rushed to different

hospitals in North Cotabato.

The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council

(NDRRMC), citing a report from the Department of Health, said the victims

ate donated food from a sponsor group in Midsayap town.

The report said they had steamed rice with shredded chicken wrapped in

banana leaves for lunch on Monday.

“After four to five hours, patients complained of abdominal pain with

episodes of nausea and vomiting, and few have bowel movement,” the report

said.

NDRRMC Executive Director Ricardo Jalad called on food donors to check

the food before distributing.

The Manila Times Newsletter

TWENTY-NINE internally displaced persons (IDP) from the series of

earthquakes in Mindanao were treated for food poisoning in North Cotabato

after allegedly eating donated items, disaster authorities said on Tuesday.

The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council

(NDRRMC), citing a report from the Department of Health’s Provincial

Epidemiological Surveillance Unit, said the food items came from a sponsor

group in Midsayap town.

The food eaten by the victims during lunch on Monday was patel, a local dish

of steamed rice with shredded chicken and egg wrapped in banana leaves.

“After four to five hours, patients complained of abdominal pain with

episodes of nausea and vomiting and few have bowel movement,” the report

said.

In a news conference at Camp Aguinaldo in Quezon City, NDRRMC

Executive Director Ricardo Jalad said the food poisoning was reported

initially from the western side of Kidapawan City.

“It was not traced at first who provided the food. I believe this incident was

not intentional by the sponsor and we assure everyone at the evacuation

centers that there will be checking of the quality of food or medicine being

provided to them,” Jalad told reporters.

He also said that all the victims were safe.

According to Casiano Monilla, Civil Defense assistant secretary, 19 people

were brought to a nearby hospital while 10 were treated at the regional health

unit of Makilala. DEMPSEY REYES

 29evacuees now discharged after treatment for

food poisoning
MANILA, Philippines – All 29 victims of food poisoning in Makilala, Cotabato were already discharged from
the hospital.

According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC), evacuees from
Barangay Malabuan suffered stomach pains followed by vomiting after eating pastel that was part of the
donated food packages in the evacuation center.

To prevent the incident from happening again, authorities improved security measures at checkpoints to ensure
the quality of food being delivered to the evacuees.

The agency also called on all donors to make sure that food donations are properly prepared and packed to
prevent spoilage.

“Hindi naman po natin masisisi ang kung sino man dito sa nangyari (We can’t blame anyone for what
happened),” Timbal said.

“But we will do our best to ensure (that this won’t happen again),” he added.
Meanwhile, the national government is sending additional funds for the rehabilitation of earthquake-affected
towns in Mindanao.
Earlier on Wednesday (November 6), Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana together with Health Secretary
Francisco Duque III and Interior Secretary Eduardo Año visited Kidapawan City Provincial Capitol to check
on the situation.

Lorenzana said local chief executives are asking for additional budget as they have already used up most of
their calamity fund.

Apart from rehabilitation, the national government also provided for the relocation of the victims who lost their
homes from the earthquake. – MNP (with details from Harlene Delgado)

Food Poisoning

Food poisoning, also called foodborne illness, is illness caused by eating contaminated
food. Infectious organisms — including bacteria, viruses and parasites — or their toxins
are the most common causes of food poisoning.

Infectious organisms or their toxins can contaminate food at any point of processing or
production. Contamination can also occur at home if food is incorrectly handled or
cooked.

Food poisoning symptoms, which can start within hours of eating contaminated food,
often include nausea, vomiting or diarrhea. Most often, food poisoning is mild and
resolves without treatment. But some people need to go to the hospital.

Symptoms

Food poisoning symptoms vary with the source of contamination. Most types of food
poisoning cause one or more of the following signs and symptoms:

 Nausea

 Vomiting

 Watery or bloody diarrhea

 Abdominal pain and cramps

  Fever

Signs and symptoms may start within hours after eating the contaminated food, or they
may begin days or even weeks later. Sickness caused by food poisoning generally lasts
from a few hours to several days.

When to see a doctor

If you experience any of the following signs or symptoms, seek medical attention.

 Frequent episodes of vomiting and inability to keep liquids down

 Bloody vomit or stools

 Diarrhea for more than three days

 Extreme pain or severe abdominal cramping

 An oral temperature higher than 100.4 F (38 C)

 Signs or symptoms of dehydration — excessive thirst, dry mouth, little or no urination,

severe weakness, dizziness, or lightheadedness

 Neurological symptoms such as blurry vision, muscle weakness and tingling in the arms

ymptoms and Sources of Common Food Poisoning Germs

Some germs make you sick within a few hours after you swallow them. Others
may take a few days to make you sick. This list provides the symptoms, when
symptoms begin, and common food sources for germs that cause food
poisoning. The germs are arranged in order of how quickly symptoms begin.

Staphylococcus aureus (Staph)

 Symptoms begin 30 minutes – 6 hours after exposure: Nausea, vomiting,

stomach cramps. Most people also have diarrhea.

 Common food sources: Foods that are not cooked after handling, such as
sliced meats, puddings, pastries, and sandwiches.
Clostridium perfringens

 Symptoms begin 6 – 24 hours after exposure: Diarrhea, stomach cramps.

Vomiting and fever are uncommon. Usually begins suddenly and lasts for
less than 24 hours.

 Common food sources: Beef or poultry, especially large roasts; gravies;

dried or precooked foods

Salmonella

 Symptoms begin 6 hours – 6 days after exposure: Diarrhea, fever, stomach

cramps, vomiting

 Common food sources: Raw or undercooked chicken, turkey, and

meat; eggs; unpasteurized (raw) milk and juice; raw fruits and vegetables
Other sources: Many animals, including backyard poultry, reptiles and
amphibians, and rodents (pocket pets)

Norovirus

 Symptoms begin 12 – 48 hours after exposure: Diarrhea, nausea/stomach

pain, vomiting

 Common food sources: Contaminated food like leafy greens, fresh

fruits, shellfish (such as oysters), or water
Other sources: Infected person; touching contaminated surfaces

Clostridium botulinum  (Botulism)

 Symptoms begin 18 – 36 hours after exposure: Double or blurred

vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech. Difficulty swallowing, breathing
 and dry mouth. Muscle weakness and paralysis. Symptoms start in the
head and move down as severity increases.

 Common food sources: Improperly canned or fermented foods, usually

homemade. Prison-made illicit alcohol.

Vibrio

 Symptoms begin 1 – 4 days after exposure: Watery diarrhea, nausea.

Stomach cramps, vomiting, fever, chills

 Common food sources: Raw or undercooked shellfish, particularly oysters

Campylobacter

 Symptoms begin 2 – 5 days after exposure: Diarrhea (often

bloody), stomach cramps/pain, fever

 Common food sources: Raw or undercooked poultry, raw (unpasteurized)

milk, and contaminated water

E. coli (Escherichia coli)

 Symptoms begin 3 – 4 days after exposure: Severe stomach cramps,

diarrhea (often bloody), and vomiting. Around 5–10% of people diagnosed
with this infection develop a life-threatening complication.

 Common food sources: Raw or undercooked ground beef, raw

(unpasteurized) milk and juice, raw vegetables (such as lettuce), raw
sprouts, contaminated water
Cyclospora

 Symptoms begin 1 week after exposure: Watery diarrhea, loss of appetite,

and weight loss. Stomach cramps/pain, bloating, increased gas, nausea,
and fatigue.

 Common food sources: Raw fruits or vegetables and herbs

Listeria

 Symptoms begin 1 – 4 weeks after exposure: Pregnant women typically

experience fever and other flu-like symptoms, such as fatigue and muscle
aches. Infections during pregnancy can lead to serious illness or even death
in newborns.
Other people (most often older adults): headache, stiff neck, confusion, loss
of balance, and convulsions in addition to fever and muscle aches.

 Common food sources: Queso fresco and other soft cheeses, raw

sprouts, melons, hot dogs, pâtés, deli meats, smoked seafood, and raw
(unpasteurized) milk.