Traffic Engineering and

Management
Credits - 3
Overview

• Module 1 – Introduction.

• Module 2 – Traffic Survey and Analysis.

• Module 3 – Traffic Control.

• Module 4 – Geometric Design of Intersections.

• Module 5 – Traffic Management.

Internal Marking Scheme (25 marks)

• Class Test 1 – Last week of Feb.

• Class Test 2 – Last week of Mar.

• Two Assignments.

• Weightage - Class Tests – 15, Assignments – 10.

• All marks will be displayed within a week of test/ assignment.

 Introduction
• Traffic Engineering deals with improvement of traffic
performance through systematic traffic studies,
scientific analysis and engineering applications.

• Traffic on Indian roads is hetrogenous

• Motorised – cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles etc.
• Non motorised – cycles, rickshaws, bullock carts etc.
• Pedestrians.

• Varying speeds.
Scope of Traffic Engineering
• Traffic Characteristics.

• Traffic Studies and Analysis.

• Geometric Design.

• Traffic operation, regulation and control.

• Road safety.

• Administration and management.

Traffic Characteristics
• Road user characteristics.

• Vehicular characteristics.
Road user characteristics
• Human element involved in all actions of road user
– as pedestrians, cyclists, cart drivers, motorists.

• Factors which affect human characteristics are :-

• Physical.
• Mental.
• Psychological.
• Environmental.
 Road User Characteristics

Physical Mental Psychological Environmental

Permanent
Vision
Hearing Knowledge Attentiveness
Strength
Traffic stream
Skill Fear
Reaction Time Facilities
Experience Anger
Atmosphere
Literacy Superstition
Temporary Locality
Intelligence
Fatigue
Illness
Drugs
•Vision.
• Most important role.
• Accuracy. In horizontal plane, clearest vision in 3 to 10
degree cone, satisfactory upto 12 degree cone.
• In vertical plane, about 2/3 of above.
• Useful in designing traffic control measures.
• Peripheral vision. Beyond clear vision, where movements
etc can be perceived.
• Depth of vision. Required for judging distance and speed of
vehicles ahead.
• Glare. Effects of glare, adoptability to changes – darkness to
light and vice versa.
Physical Characteristics
• Hearing.
• Important for drivers, pedestrians and cyclists.
• Safety of all road users affected by hearing.

• Strength.
• Important for steering, parking etc., particularly for heavy
vehicles.
• Lack of strength may cause problems.

• Reaction time.
• Affects all traffic maneuvers – stopping, overtaking etc.
 Reaction time of the driver
• Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant
the object is visible to the driver to the instant when the
brakes are applied.
• PIEV theory.
• Perception. Time required to perceive an object/ situation.
• Intelection. Time required for the driver to understand the
situation.
• Emotion. Time elapsed during emotional sensations. Eg.
Fear, anger, shocking etc.
• Volition. Time taken by the driver for the final action. Eg.
Braking

• IRC suggests a reaction time of 2.5 secs.

Mental Characteristics
• Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behavior,
driving practice, rules of roads, psychology of road
users.

• Reaction to traffic situations improves with skill and

experience.

• Intelligence and Literacy help in understanding traffic

regulations, behaviour and special instructions.
Psychological Characteristics
• Affect reaction to traffic situations to a great extent.

• Emotional factors such as attentiveness, fear, anger,

superstition, patience, maturity, general attitude
towards traffic and regulations.

• Distractions by non-traffic events and worries reduce

attentiveness.

• Dangerous actions may result from impatience.

Environmental Characteristics
• Traffic stream characteristics – mixed traffic, slow
moving traffic, number of heavy vehicles.

• The purpose of moving in traffic – social,

recreational, business, emergency.

• Locality may be a mall or other place with other

distractions, thus affecting behavior.

• Weather, visibility, atmospheric conditions like

rainfall, snowfall, fog etc.
Behavior of Users
• Generally, behavior of drivers varies with class of
vehicle. Drivers of heavy commercial drivers is
different from drivers of cars.

• Pedestrians prefer to use facilities if they are

comfortable and safe – firm surface, less slopes,
safety in crossing roads etc.
Vehicular characteristics
• Dimensions.

• Weight.

• Speed.

• Braking.

• Turning radius.

• Height of driver eye level.

Vehicle dimensions.
• Overall length.
• Affects extra width required, turning radius, parking facilities,
capacity of road.
• No vehicle permitted to be more than 2 units.
• Max length permitted – 18m.

• Width.
• Affects width of traffic lanes, shoulders, parking.
• Max permitted – 2.5m.

• Height.
• Affects clearance under bridges, electric lines, sign boards etc.
• Single decked – 3.80m.
• Double decked – 4.75m.
Types of vehicles and Dimensions
Weight of vehicle
• Weight of loaded vehicle affects pavement thickness and
gradient.

• Max permissible gross weights and axle weights are

standardized by IRC as follows.
Speed of vehicles
• Affects
• Sight distances.
• Super elevation.
• Transition curve.
• Capacity of traffic lanes.
• Design gradient.
• Radius of curves.
• Control measures.
Braking characteristics
• Braking and deceleration depends on type of
braking system (mechanical, fluid, air) and its
efficiency.

• Highway capacity and OSD are affected by

acceleration and deceleration.
Braking Test
• Skid resistance of pavement can be measured
conducting braking test.

• Brakes are applied till vehicle comes to stop.

Efficiency of braking assumed 100%.

• At least two of the following measurements

required-
• Braking distance, L metres.
• Initial speed, u m/sec.
• Actual duration of brake application, t sec.
Braking Test – Formulae
• If max frictional force developed is F kg and braking
distance is L metres, work done against friction is
FxL
= WfL, where W is weight of vehicle and f is coeff of
friction.
• KE of the vehicle is mu2/2 = Wu2/2g
• Equating the two,
WfL = Wu2/2
𝒖𝟐
Or, 𝑳=
𝟐𝒈𝒇
Where,
• L = Braking distance, metres.
• u = speed of vehicle in m/sec.
• f = coefficient of friction or skid resistance.
• g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/sec2.
Braking Test – Formulae
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂. 𝒕 and 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝒂. 𝒔
Where,
• v = Final speed of vehicle in m/sec.
• u = Initial speed of vehicle in m/sec.
• a = acceleration/ deceleration of vehicle in m/sec2.
• t = time taken by vehicle to stop in sec.
• s = distance travelled by vehicle in metres.

𝑾 𝒂
𝑭 = 𝒎. 𝒂 𝒐𝒓 𝑾. 𝒇 = .𝒂 𝒐𝒓 𝒇 =
𝒈 𝒈
Where,
• f = coefficient of friction or Skid resistance.
• a = acceleration/ deceleration of vehicle in m/sec2.
• g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/sec2.
Braking Test – Example 1
• In a braking test, a vehicle travelling at a speed of 30kmph
was stopped by applying brakes fully and the skid marks
were 5.8 m in length. Determine the average skid resistance
of the pavement surface.
• Solution-
Given, u = 30 kmph, L = 5.8 m

u = 30 kmph = 8.33 m/sec

Braking Distance = L = u2/2gf

f = 8.33 x 8.33/5.8 x 2 x 9.8

= 0.61
Braking Test – Example 2
• A vehicle travelling at 40 kmph was stopped within 1.8 sec
after application of brakes. Determine the average skid
resistance.
• Solution-
Given, u = 40 kmph, t = 1.8 sec

u = 30 kmph = 11.11 m/sec

Now, v = u + a.t
a = u/t = 11.1/ 1.8 = 6.17 m/sec2

And, f = a/g = 6.17/9.8

f= 0.63
Braking Test – Example 3
• A vehicle was stopped in 1.4 sec by fully jamming the brakes
and the skid marks measured 7 m. Determine the average skid
resistance.
• Solution-
Given, t = 1.4 sec, L = 7 m

v = u + a.t but, since v = 0, u = a.t

And, v2 = u2 + 2.a.s, hence, s = u2/2.a

Hence, s = a2.t2/2.a

Therefore, a = 2s/t2

a = 2 x 7/ 1.42 = 7.14 and, f = a/g = 7.14/9.8 = 0.73

 Braking Test – Example 4
• A vehicle moving at 40kmph was stopped by applying brakes
and the length of skid marks was 12.2 m. if the average skid
resistance of the pavement is 0.7, what is the brake efficiency.
• Solution-
Given, u = 40 kmph, L = 12.2 m, f = 0.7

u = 40 kmph = 11.11 m/sec

From eqn L = u2/2gf, skid resistance developed is

f’ = 11.11 x 11.11 / 2 x 9.8 x 12.2 = 0.516

And, actual skid resistance is 0.7.

Brake efficiency = (f’/f) x 100 = (0.516/0.7)x100 = 73.71%

Thank You