Born Free: The Experiences of

Motherhood in Prison and the Rights of

the Child to Family Life

By

Marie Campion BA

A study presented to the School of Law, University College Dublin in

partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Science in Criminology and Criminal Justice.

Student Number: 05786665

Word Count: 15,150

University College Dublin August 16th 2011

 For my parents

Acknowledgements
The writer would like to thank the staff of the Dochas Centre who kindly gave of their
time, help and advice to take part in this study.

2
Table of Contents: Pages

Introduction 4-6

Literature Review 7-17

Objective of the Study 18

Methodology 19-22

Content and Analysis of the Research 23-30

Context of the Research 31-37

Discussion 38-42

Conclusion 43

Recommendations 44-46

Bibliography 47-49

Appendices 50-64

3
1: Introduction:

The title of this thesis is about the prison experience for mothers currently serving time in
Ireland and what happens to their children while they are incarcerated. The
imprisonment of women especially mothers is often seen as a “double punishment”
because not only is the mother punished but so are their children. This has a ripple effect
for their families and society in general. Families which experience their mother in
prison can encounter a wide variety of problems such as loss of main carer, financial and
emotional loss as well. This can affect the emotional and cognitive development of their
children as well as the relationship between mother and child during incarceration and
post release. The main aim of this study is firstly to explore the reasons behind the
incarceration of women prisoners, what type of crimes are they imprisoned for, how long
are their sentences, is the recidivism rate high and the experiences of mothers in prison
which is the main scope of my study and what arrangements are in place for their
children while their mother is incarcerated.

The area which will be first researched, is what crimes mothers are incarcerated for?
Most women are in prison for drug related offences, petty crimes and property crimes.
By researching what type of crimes incarcerated mothers commit it can be determined if
prison is the most suitable environment for these women or would a rehabilitation
programme be more beneficial to them. If the prison environment offers a more holistic
approach rather than a punitive one to mothers in prison are they really benefiting from
their time in prison and will the experiences of prison life help them to cope with life on
the outside upon their release. Training programmes such as back to education and
learning a trade would be beneficial to those in prison, not only would it occupy their
time while in prison it would also be beneficial to them when they are released. Many
women who are incarcerated are from a background that is socially disadvantaged and
they may not have got the chances in life that women on the outside currently take for
granted. By finding out what sort of programmes are in place and what is the uptake for
these programmes it will give an insight into the credentials of the programmes currently

4
run in prison. If there is a low uptake should these programmes be abandoned and what
type of programme should replace it.

While these mothers are incarcerated their worries do simply not hide behind the prison
walls they have to cope with making sure their children are taken care of during their
absence, this is the main difference between male and female prisoners. Men leave their
problems on the outside women take their problems with them. This is the next issue
which will guide the research, what happens to children when their mother is sent to
prison and how will it infringe on the rights of the child to family life. The main angle
here is how do incarcerated mothers cope with arranging who takes care of their children
and the reliance they place on family members and also on the state for help. Will they
be better placed with immediate family such as grandparents or would foster care, be the
better option and if so do social services ensure that when children are placed their
carer’s are vetted. This is to ensure that life continues on as normal for the child and
activities such as going to school, healthcare, play and contact with family will ensure
that the child’s life is still fulfilling even with their mother’s absence.
The next area to focus on is the mother-child relationship while in prison. Mothers who
are separated from their children places undue stress on mothers and their ability to
function as a mother can often be compromised. Hence, the natural mother has only a
marginal role in their child’s life because others have asserted ownership instead of the
mother. What will be addressed here is how does mother-child relationships function in
prison and what practices are put in place to see this relationship continues not only in
the prison environment but upon release. With regards to first time mothers and newborn
babies are there any mother and baby units in the prison which allow them to bond with
their babies in those early crucial months? If so how does it operate and what it the exact
time period mothers can hold onto their babies before they are handed over to extended
family or placed in foster care. For the purpose of this research the writer would like to
compare the programmes we have in place in Ireland with programmes in other
jurisdictions such as America where the percentage of women in prison is on the increase
especially those with children. During their time in prison do mothers take part in

5
parenting courses which would enable them to become better parents both during
incarceration and upon release. What is the uptake of these courses is it voluntary or
compulsory and what are the success rates?

Finally the last area to look into is the rights of the child, in what way are their rights
being infringed because their mother is in prison. Will this affect their life chances in
future and what has international law to say about the rights of the child to see their
mother while she is in prison? Does Irish law fit in with both international and European
law in this respect? The writer hopes to answer all of the issues raised in the body of the
research and they will be addressed accordingly in the order which they were written
above.

6
2: Literature Review:

It cannot be denied that in order for the writer to evaluate their own findings and make
recommendations it is a good idea to read previous literature on what has already been
written about incarcerated mothers. Let us begin with what has been published in
Ireland, most recently is the book by Christina M. Quinlan Inside Ireland’s Women’s
Prisons Past and Present (2010) here the author explores the history of incarcerated
women right up to present day. She critiques the harshness of the Irish criminal court
system by expressing that it gives men an unfair advantage with men getting more
chances than women even if their crimes are somewhat similar. This is blamed on the
gendered approach to criminal justice which is associated with the protectiveness
towards women and male paternalism. Quinlan feels there is more to it than that and
instead believes it is women who are marginalised from society who suffer at the hands
of the criminal justice system simply because there is nowhere else for them. The
inappropriate imprisonment of homeless women, women with mental illnesses, women
with drug and alcohol addiction and women suffering the effects of physical, mental and
sexual abuse. Women like these are all placed in prisons regularly for short sentences
because they do not conform to their stereotypical roles and their criminality is of a
trivial nature in comparison to male crime. One of the professionals who was
interviewed for her study described the Dochas Centre as ‘an annex of the Central
Mental Hospital’, who are forced into engaging with the prison system (Quinlan: 89).

Quinlan goes on to describe the Dochas Centre and the experiences of women
incarcerated there. Prison staff is encouraged to treat the inmates with care, compassion
and therapy instead of security. In fact it is this treatment that she critiques because
ultimately for the inmates it coerces them to surrender their autonomy and control to the
professionals working within the prison system. One member of the prison staff was
shocked at the surprisingly high recidivism rates of the inmates especially those on drugs,
the staff member felt women in prison would not want to return once free. Not
surprisingly the majority of women incarcerated in Ireland have the same characteristics,

7
poor prospects, drug dependent, poor health, multiple pregnancies, and strong recidivists
and from very deprived backgrounds (Quinlan: 94).

The most poignant aspect of her research which draws on the main subject matter of the
thesis is the lack of support for women with families. Mothers do not just bring their
own crimes and problems with them to prison they bring their domestic concerns with
them as well. Even though they want to be good parents they lack the parenting skills
associated with motherhood because of the cycle of imprisonment in their own families.
It is this aspect the writer wants to research further in the thesis, the role of mothers in
prison and the lack of awareness of what parenting is because there is no guideline for
these women since they did not receive good parenting themselves. She also highlights
the chronic overcrowding in the Dochas Centre with up to137 women being held in that
facility which was originally designed for 83 women (85 according to the Irish Prison
Service Annual Report 2009) it is reasons like this which forced the previous Governor
Kathleen McMahon to resign in 2010. The second report of the European Committee for
the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT)
requested that measures be taken to ensure that all women imprisoned are provided with
appropriate accommodation. Prison can be tough on anyone but it is particularly harsh
for women especially mothers their experiences of prison are described in this book and
they give their own opinions. Mostly the women are concerned with the rules and
regulations of the prison system agreeing they are always changing and what is needed is
a clear and distinct set of rules which should be wrote down so they know what is kosher.
They are also subject to degrading treatment such as strip searches which all the women
prisoners found humiliating. It is in the writer’s opinion that the probations officers
could play a role here by giving each prisoner a list of do’s and don’ts when they enter
the prison. The probation officer is the first person the prisoner meets on entering prison
and if they knew about the rules immediately maybe they wouldn’t be punished for doing
something they didn’t know was wrong. Lack of awareness seems to be a dominant
theme throughout Quinlan’s book and because many of women in prison are from
underprivileged backgrounds, they are less willing to assert themselves than women in

8
prison from middle class backgrounds. Only 15 of the women prisoners interviewed for
the book had heard of the Visiting Committee. The Visiting Committee is the only
structure within the prison system through which the inmates can get a hearing that is not
of the control or management structure of the prison (Quinlan: 145). Overall it was
found that women in prison found the experience hard, unfortunately the prison
experience was worse for poorer women and mothers most of all. Mothers found the
prison experience hard because of the separation from their children and because their
worries extended beyond the confines of the prison walls.

John Lonergan in his book The Governor the Life and Times of the Man who ran
Mountjoy (2010) spoke of the importance of how people are treated while in prison how
prisoners are punished enough by the process of confinement and it is important for staff
to treat them with respect throughout their sentence. In the introduction of this book
Lonergan narrates the untold story of why in his opinion prison is such a costly,
destructive and brutal system. Lonergan was the first governor in the prison service to
highlight the need for reforming the conditions of female prisoners in Ireland. He set up
a working group to establish a new prison for women and to highlight the services and
facilities it should provide which are specific to the needs of women. Lonergan’s
philosophy was to create a prison environment for women which would be as normal as
possible to life on the outside. This process of “normalization” would make the
transition from prison to the outside world less traumatic since it would create a spirit of
independent living for the female prisoners. The aim was to create a prison which would
be more like a home for the female inmates so they would take pride in their living space
and keep it clean. As previous studies have shown, female prisoners need less security
than male prisoners and here Lonergan highlights this fact from a security perspective.
Female prisoners seldom escape, nor do they damage the place and they treat their cells
like their homes. Lonergan also took an innovative step by consulting the female
prisoners themselves what services and facilities they wanted in the new prison. Instead
of calling it a prison Lonergan decided the women should choose the name, Tara
O’Callaghan a teenage prisoner decided the new centre should be called Dochas,

9
meaning hope in Irish and this was the vision and philosophy both Lonergan and the
women wanted for their new centre.

In September 1999 the Dochas Centre was opened and it was a new era for the way
female prisoners were treated in Ireland. Lonergan in this book seems more of a
defender of human rights than a prison Governor, he reiterates that most of the women
are in their for petty crimes and like (Quinlan, 2010) mentioned the majority of the
female inmates are from the lower margins of society and maybe if they were given more
opportunities they would not be in prison. Most of the female prisoners die from drug
related illnesses or pure neglect, which is hard for the philosophy of the Dochas Centre as
it wants to give hope to female prisoners. Lonergan also criticises some government
organisations about the treatment of prisoners by saying their actions are retrograde and
have tunnel vision. One such organisation is the Irish Prison Service which he feels has
only given lukewarm support to the Dochas Centre. It is in Lonergan’s opinion the Irish
Prison Service has the attitude that women are given preferential treatment over men
when it comes to penal policy. Instead the Irish Prison Service should use the Dochas
Centre model as a model of excellence and a springboard for the improvement in the
treatment of male prisoners and not as a retrospective step by making prison worse for
both sexes. The Irish Prison Service also compare like with like by highlighting the
treatment of women prisoners in the Dochas Centre in comparison to those in Limerick
Prison. Again it’s the same small minded attitude and was used to justify the
overcrowding in the Dochas Centre if women in Limerick can share rooms then so too
can women in Dublin. As a consequence of this the rooms in the Dochas Centre were
designed differently, in the original plan it was agreed the rooms were to be small so they
could not possibly house two women. Unfortunately the Irish Prison Service ignored this
advice resulting in an increase in the size of the rooms with the introduction of steel jail
bunk beds. Lonergan felt this was a bad move by the Irish Prison Service since it can
create bad feeling among inmates who may want their own space unfortunately it is
Lonergan’s belief that “doubling up” and overcrowding will remain in the Dochas Centre
for many more years to come. Lonergan further critiques the Irish Prison Service in its

10
approach to security, as stated previously female prisoners are less aggressive than their
male counterparts which means they require less minding and security. Unfortunately
this is not the attitude the Irish Prison Service takes which feels women should be
handcuffed for security reasons even if it infringes on their basic human rights.
Lonergan made an executive decision in the late 1990s not to handcuff female prisoners
and only in exceptional circumstances such as an attempted escape were female prisoners
to be handcuffed for security reasons. In his own words,

‘In future all women going on escort to courts, hospitals and on transfer to other
prisons shall only be hand-cuffed if the chief officer direct’ (2010: 154)

Another example he gives of inhumane treatment is shackling of women during

childbirth a system which is in practice in America again Lonergan defends the human
rights of women here by reiterating the point that in all his years of working with women
prisoners he has never heard of a woman escaping from custody while giving birth. .
Lonergan expresses his opinion as to why he finds it upsetting to see mothers in prison
and away from their children. He admired the previous system of temporary release for
women offenders as it succeeded in keeping both mothers and babies out of prison.
This is not the case now and Lonergan felt the process of temporary release was effective
for females as their crimes were petty in comparison to males. This is a retrograde step
in the treatment of female prisoners especially mothers who ought to be with their
children (Lonergan: 155). Unfortunately in recent years this is not the case and the
Department of Justice now believe if the sentence is there you serve it no matter if you
are pregnant or a mother with children to look after. Furthermore, the sentencing policy
currently in place needs to be looked at especially the current system of temporary
release. However he feels the current system of temporary release lacks transparency,
and prisoners and their families have no idea what criteria are used in the granting or
refusal of temporary release. The decision to grant temporary release to a prisoner is
made by the civil service not the Governor of the prison, and if they are granted
temporary release by the civil service it is not a clear and concise decision. Neither the
prisoner nor the Governor, know how the decision was made, why a prisoner qualifies

11
and why some are refused. If the system was more transparent then the Governor could
advise the prisoners about the process and whether it was worth their time applying for it.

Lonergan’s book also touches on the theme throughout the thesis not only on the rights
of mothers in prison but also on the rights of the child to family life. Family occasions
such as Communions, Confirmations and birthdays are once off and important
celebrations in any child’s life and naturally most children want their parents to partake
in these happy events. Lonergan feels that every effort should be made for the child’s
sake to ensure the parent is there, if temporary release was granted to the mother then she
could attend. Unfortunately it is often the case the prisoner is turned down even if the
prisoner has less than a year to serve this is a retrospective step and ignores the child’s
rights during important events in their lives. Finally, throughout the theme of this book
Lonergan emphasises prison as a harsh system, made even worse by the policies
currently in place. The writer would argue that even though the Dochas Centre is a
thoroughly modern open prison and a massive improvement on Limerick Prison and
Mountjoy for women, prison is still confinement for mothers and is costly to the
exchequer. The average cost of providing a prison space in 2009 was 77,222 Euros
according to the Irish Prison Service Annual Report 2009. Maybe another system should
be in place instead and if the currently on hold Thornton Hall does go ahead and the
Dochas Centre are relocated will it make a difference to the outcome of female prisoners
and their families. In the words and expert advice of John Lonergan again,

‘When the Dochas Centre is relocated, officials would do well to remember that it
takes more than a building to bring out the best in people’.(2010: 154).

In other words what they need are effective and humane management, good living
conditions, training programmes and contact with their families so they can eventually
reintegrate back into mainstream society.

12
Continuing on with recent relevant Irish prison literature is Danielle Sheehy in her article
‘Staying Connected’: Families’ experiences of visiting an imprisoned relative and
implications for social work practice’ in Critical Social Thinking: Policy and Practice
(2010) Sheehy expounds on the importance of prison visits in order for families to stay in
contact. The effects of having a family member in prison can be profound with both
emotional and financial effects many families feel like they are serving a sentence
themselves and it is especially hard for their children (Bedford Row Family Project,
2008). The pains of imprisonment can be alleviated through family visits and it is
important visits are maintained to keep the mother-child relationship going as many
mothers are re-united with their children upon release (Lewis, Bates and Murray, 2008:
29). As is currently the practice in Ireland the social worker only comes on the scene if
there are child protection issues or mental health concerns for the family. Very often is
the case in Irish prisons the probation service does the double job of trying to maintain
the family links with very limited resources and not so much time. What is needed is a
prison system which is family friendly so children and relatives are not put off or
embarrassed visiting their family in prison. Not only can children experience shame and
stigma while visiting their mother, the cost of visiting can be a financial burden on the
family finances. As is highlighted from the literature discussed it is well known
prisoners are most often from the lowest socio-economic strata of society and living in
the most deprived areas poorly served by public transport. This causes further stress for
families trying to visit prison and in the future if Thornton Hill goes ahead will only
make the difficulties of visiting greater posing more logistical problems due to the
greater distances families are expected to travel.

Security is another issue for families bringing children to visit their mothers in prison, as
visitors can be used as pawns for passing drugs to prisoners with addiction problems.
Not only this, drugs can be used as a system of barter within the prison so prisoners can
gain access to other sought after items. In the Dochas Centre both adults and children
have to go through security to visit the prisoners, there is a prison officer present with a
sniffer dog and also an airport style detection system which all visitors have to pass

13
through. This would be daunting for anyone especially for children who may be afraid of
dogs. What is recommended here by Sheehy is to make visits especially for children
more family friendly. Prisons which operate more family friendly visits are already in
operation in Ireland and if this model was copied it may make mother-child relationships
easier to maintain while in prison. Examples of this are open prisons such as Loughan
House and Shelton Abbey, which employ reduced security units that do offer family
friendly visits. Positive aspects of visiting meant the family bond was retained and
adjusting to life post release for both prisoner and family would prove less difficult
because the familial bond was maintained. Families also found if they were treated well
from prison staff it made the visit less of a daunting experience. From Sheehy’s research
the most salient problem highlighted is that many obstacles prevent families visiting
imprisoned relatives. This hones in on the theme of the thesis and the research literature
discussed, if obstacles are already in place to make visiting difficult not only does it
impede on the negative experiences mothers have in prison it also infringes on the rights
of the child to family life by preventing visits to take place. What is recommended is a
change in the prison management structure and more information regarding the visiting
process. Professional support around rights and entitlements would be very beneficial to
visitors and this could be done through the aid of a social worker with a more defined
role which would aid the promotion and support of family contact through visiting.
Unfortunately this service is lacking in the Irish system. Sheehy recommends a system
to be put in place which would give the social worker a clearly defined role and would
help maintain family bonds for prisoners by making the visiting experience a more
positive one. The steps her paper recommends policy to take is, education, training,
information, research, an emphasis on family support work so those working with
prisoners and their families can have a positive experience of prison visits.

Most importantly for future research is that families who don’t have strong familial
support networks are provided with the assistance from the social work profession so
they too can benefit from prison visits and in the long run maintain kinship relations that
will help them re-integrate into family life upon release. This research corroborates with

14
the theme of the thesis as the underlying question is, the prison experience for mothers is
hard enough especially if they have to cope with separation anxiety from their children.
However, it would be made far worse if the experience of visiting a member in prison
was so daunting it turned the family off, resulting in the weakening of familial bonds and
a breakdown in the relationship between mother and child. This is an important
contribution to the work on prison policy because if prison policy does not implement a
more family-child friendly visit service it not only does infringe on the rights of the child
and the mother but in the broader context it is in breach with both domestic, European
and International law.

Judging from the above literature discussed it would appear imprisonment of mothers has
knock on or secondary effects for both mother and child. Jessica Breen in her article
‘Secondary Effects of Imprisonment: the new direction of prison research’ in the Irish
Probation Journal (2010) discusses what these effects are describing them as both
financial as well as social costs. Breen addresses the economic impact of having a family
member incarcerated and the effects it has on children including roles and relationships.
No matter what the financial circumstances were before incarceration, imprisonment of a
parent has a negative impact on the family finances and all of this inadvertently affects
the child’s life and their life chances. Research in this area has been very hard to capture
due to the fact most previous research has not been conducted over a period of time or
longitudinal. Other factors which made evidence of the negative effects of parental
imprisonment of children hard to capture was the fact many parents did not tell their
children one of their parents was in prison. Instead they chose to say their parent was in
the army, hospital, or working overseas. So the true statistics of how children felt and
how it adversely affected them in the future are somehow tampered because children
weren’t actually aware where their parent was. One such study which does offer
longitudinal data is from Murray and Farrington (2005), this study showed the effect of
parental imprisonment on boys during the first 10 years of their lives. Results found
boys who experienced parental separation due to parental imprisonment were more likely
to be involved in anti-social behaviour. Unfortunately, placing this study within an Irish

15
context is difficult as there has been a lack of research into the effects of imprisonment
for the child and their family. One such study was carried out in 2002 at the visitor’s
centre at Mountjoy Prison which reported the difficulties caregivers of prisoner’s
children had, their problems are no different to any of the literature discussed previously,
issues relating to single parenting, financial hardship, difficulties experienced with
visiting and stigma (Centre for Social and Educational Research (CSER), 2002). As
previously discussed the Bedford Row Family Project in Limerick carried out a similar
study in 2008 in which findings were similar to all previous studies although several new
themes emerged one of them being, the lack of after-care for imprisoned relatives as they
felt they had the double burden of not only trying to re-integrate prisoners back into
family life but also into their communities too.

Breen comes to the conclusion in her article that not enough research has been done
about the far reaching consequences of the secondary effects of imprisonment has on
families. It seems the only objective prison has is to take away people’s freedom and
comply with the demands of the criminal justice system. Unfortunately imprisonment
does not reduce crime and does little to improve the livelihoods which are affected
because of parental imprisonment. This article is very close to underlying theme of the
thesis about the child’s right to family life which is hampered due to parental
imprisonment and may affect their life course by turning to a life of delinquency and
anti-social behaviour because they lack a parental role model. According to Breen very
little research has been done into the harmful effects of imprisonment in Ireland and this
may be due to the difficulty in accessing interviews from the children of imprisoned
parents either because of the stigma attached or because parents don’t reveal all to their
children for fear of upsetting them. Nevertheless, the secondary effects need to be
studied because children are the innocent victims or “orphans of justice” of their parent’s
crime and as Breen said herself it is an area that requires further investigation.

16
As mentioned previously a report which is similar to the theme of the thesis was carried
out in 2002 by the Centre for Social and Educational Research in Dublin Institute of
Technology this study analysed the effects of parental imprisonment on children in
Ireland. This research was done specifically to address the needs of children with
imprisoned parents like all the previous literature beforehand summarized parental
imprisonment had nothing but a negative effect for children which resulted in changes in
the financial circumstances for the child, behavioural problems all cumulating in either
an alteration or a breakdown in the parent-child bond (Healy 2000; Boswell and Wedge
1999). This report places a strong emphasis on the effort needed in order to maintain
familial relationships while in prison. It also highlights the effect female incarceration
has on children especially because women are more likely than men to be the main
caregivers before imprisonment, which will make it more likely the children of female
prisoners will experience greater problems as a result of their mother’s absence. This
makes it harder for the experience of motherhood in prison, as mothers often look to
extended family networks with foster care an option if there is no support available to
them.

The report recommends we look to other jurisdictions such as the U.K and Denmark
where extended visiting schemes are currently in place which are more family friendly
and allow the family unit to remain strong. This is a system which Ireland could copy
exactly and all it would entail is a change in the prison visiting structure and penal policy
so the maintenance and continued relationships between prisoners and their children
could be strengthened. This statement deserves closer attention as throughout the body
of the thesis the desired outcome would be positive recommendations to current prison
policy which would not take too long or be too costly to implement. Drawing the
literature review to an end the writer in the main body of the thesis will look to
international literature to seek answers for the study undertaken which are more family
friendly prison policies which alleviate and don’t hamper the prison experience for
mothers and the rights of the child to family life.

17
3: Objective of the Study:

The main objective of this study is to consider the potential benefits and problems
associated with mothers looking after their children while incarcerated. Is it in the best
interest of the child to be in a prison environment in order to sustain the mother-child
relationship or would the child be better in a normal home environment. What will
happen to the child when they have to leave the prison environment and when are they
considered too old to stay with their mother? The interviews will provide the writer with
insiders knowledge of what actually goes on in the Dochas Centre and by interviewing
staff who are directly engaged with mothers in prison. The writer can argue what they
believe is the best option for incarcerated mothers and how the prison experience helps or
hinders their life chances. This study will look at the many conflicting theories about
mothers in prison and is prison really the best environment for them. Essentially the
objective is to attempt to determine if the system we have in place in Ireland is the best
model or should we perhaps look to another jurisdiction to see if their model is an
effective and equitable means to attain the dual goal of delivering a rehabilitative prison
experience for mothers and a good quality family life for their child while at the same
time introducing a prison system to modern Irish society which complies with basic
fundamental human rights and most importantly the rights of the child. It is only then
can the prison system in Ireland be seen as moving forward and can be copied as a model
of excellence at both European and International level.

18
4: Methodology:

4.1 Sources of data

The research for this thesis consisted of both primary and secondary research. The
secondary research drew on material and data available in the James Joyce Library in
University College Dublin including journals, books and reports. Relevant reports from
the Irish Prison Service were also used. Given that the internet is now a central source of
research for material, I utilised Google scholar as another source of secondary
information.

In order to prepare for research about the prison experience for women who are
incarcerated in Ireland a letter was written to the Irish Probation Service, the Dochas
Centre and the Irish Prison Service. In this letter the writer explained their urgency to
interview people working directly with women in prison as it was paramount to the
primary research for the study undertaken. This would give the writer an insight into
daily lives of women in prison and how they coped with the prison regime. Due to the
sensitive nature of the topic the writer decided not to go for ethical approval as the main
aim of the thesis is to provide information on the topic not an in depth study and analysis,
which would be more suited to a Doctoral thesis which would require more time to write
the paper. The letter was followed on by a phone call to each of the above institutions.
This was soon followed by a response from the Director General Michael Donnellan of
the Irish Probation Service who put the writer in touch with Ita Burke who would assist
with the research. Ita Burke requested the writer to fill in a research inquiry which was
then presented to their research committee for suitability. This was done without delay
and the application was accepted by their committee. Ita Burke then put the writer in
contact with their regional manager Paula Cooney who would then coordinate the
interviews with three probation officers working directly with women prisoners in the
Dochas Centre. The interviews were arranged for Thursday 21st July 2011 in the Dochas
Centre.

19
In order to gain access to the Dochas Centre to interview prison officers, probation
officers and the Governor, approval was required from the Irish Prison Service. As
mentioned previously the writer wrote to both the Dochas Centre and the Irish Prison
Service. Unfortunately they did not respond and it was decided to take further action.
The writer then contacted the Director General Michael Donnellan who decided to
forward the original letter sent on to the Irish Prison Service and the Dochas Centre to
Seamus Beirne, Prisoner-Based Research Ethics Committee in the Irish Prison Service
HQ. Seamus Beirne rang the writer in order to verify their authenticity as the Director
General Brian Purcell wanted to know why a tour of the Dochas Centre was required as
well as an interview with the Governor Mary O’Connor of the Dochas Centre. The
Writer explained it was major source of primary research for the subject matter and
without it the thesis would only consist of secondary information. The application for
approval to interviewing prison staff was granted on Wednesday 20th July 2011 by
Seamus Beirne of the Irish Prison Service, Headquarters. In addition to this consent
forms were also sent to the relevant personnel within the Dochas Centre.

4.2 Limitations of research:

The sensitive nature of the study meant the scope of the study was limited due to several
factors. It was originally envisaged mothers and children would be interviewed as part of
the research unfortunately this could not be done since no ethical approval was sought
from UCD as it proved to be more time consuming than anticipated. Other factors
included the fact the staff in prison know that many children were not aware their
mothers were in prison because the children are told their mothers are somewhere else.

20
4.3 Dochas Centre Tour:

The Dochas Centre is a committal prison for female offenders aged 17 years and over. It
is the main prison for females in the state and was brought into service in December
1999. The design capacity of the Dochas Centre is 80 inmates (85 according to the Irish
Prison Services Annual Report 2009) but this is always exceeded and overcrowding is
always an issue. A probation officer in the Dochas Centre kindly organised a tour of the
Dochas Centre as part of the primary research. A prison officer in the Dochas Centre
facilitated this tour and a tour was completed around the complex. On the entrance to the
Dochas Centre there is a “vision statement” on the wall which reads:

‘We encourage personal growth and development in preparing a safe

environment. We are committed to addressing the needs of each person in a
healing and holistic way. We actively promote close interaction with the wider
community.’

This was the ethos originally envisaged by John Lonergan and the first female prisoners
in the Dochas Centre. Firstly the writer was shown the training facilities which
consisted of a computer room, a sewing and crafts room, a home economics room and
finally a hair salon. Next the writer was shown the gym and fitness area and then was
brought around to the different houses within the Dochas Centre. The design of the
centre consists of six individual houses, plus the pre-release house and the Health Care
Unit (HCU) with a pretty courtyard and a grassy area in the centre for prisoners to walk
around. Each house has a kitchen, dining room and a large sitting room. There was a big
communal dining room for the entire jail for main meals this also doubled as a visiting
centre for family visits. It was bright and airy with adequate space and there was a play
area for children with plenty of toys and books. In addition there is a Visitor’s Centre
with toys that children can use and family can congregate. Mothers are allowed to have
physical contact with their children during visits. There where television rooms were the
women could congregate and socialise. All rooms were in good condition with bathroom
facilities. In one of the houses the writer was brought in to see the only baby in the

21
complex living with their mother. The prison officer explained the mother chose to live
in this complex even though there was more suitable accommodation across the way.
Usually mothers would be entitled to more privileged housing such as the Hazel
complex. The simple reason being the mother was a member of the Travelling
community and as they are a homogenous group, she wanted to be with her peers as they
are company for her and her baby. This complex is more relaxed than what the reader
might expect from a prison and the prisoners are given more responsibilities to make
decisions themselves of the running of the various houses. They all manage their own
home in regard to cleaning, cooking and laundering.

During this tour the writer observed no prisoners were handcuffed this is in part due to
the legacy John Lonergan left behind as he felt no prisoner should be handcuffed unless
they were a security threat. Throughout the tour the writer felt the main emphasis of the
centre was one of training and rehabilitation and these activities are structured as close as
possible to a normal working day. The women are under no obligation to attend the
training courses provided and uptake is higher for foreign nationals than Irish women in
general. The courses provided are not that academic this may be due to the relatively
shorter sentences served by women and if they are mothers as well they may be coping
with family problems in addition to their sentence.

22
5: Context and Analysis of the Research carried out in the Dochas Centre:

For the purpose of this study all interviews were conducted in the Dochas Centre on
Thursday 21st July 2011. As part of this study the Governor, three probation officers and
two prison officers agreed to be interviewed for the study. On the day the interview took
place over 55% of the women in the Dochas Centre were mothers with 10 women in
there currently pregnant. The interviews were broken down into four main sections, (1)
Prison experience for mothers (2) Effects of Parental Imprisonment on Children (3)
Rights of the child to family life and (4) Help for mothers post-release. During the
context of the discussions carried ensued various themes emerged from each of these
sections which corresponded with the findings in the literature review. The findings will
be discussed in accordance with the four main sections.

5. 1 Prison experience for mothers:

The most dominant theme emerging from all interviewees was the background the
mothers came from. The majority of the women were in their mid to late 20s from a
lower-socio economic status and were feeding a drug habit and serving short sentences.
This corresponds with the findings in Christina Quinlan’s book who found most of the
women in prison were women with alcohol and drug addictions that are placed in prisons
regularly for short sentences because they do not conform to their stereotypical roles and
their criminality is of a trivial nature in comparison with male crime (Quinlan,
2010:126). According to the Irish Prison Service Annual Report 2009 the average
number of female prisoners in custody was 132, compared to 124 in 2008. There was
only one mother in the prison with a baby on site she was a member of the Travelling
community the baby is allowed to stay with their mother for a year and the mother has
sole responsibility of taken care of her baby. For the babies sake the social worker
arranges visits between the baby and the caregiver so the baby can get use to the new
caregiver. This usually happens when the baby is five months old. Over time the course
of the visits get longer so the transition from handing the baby from mother to caregiver

23
is easier for all concerned. The caregiver is preferably a relative in the majority of cases
either a sister or a grandmother. In some cases the baby is looked after by foster parents
and all this is arranged by the HSE and the social worker to make sure they are suitable.
As stated previously over 55% of the women in the Dochas Centre are mothers so the
majority of mothers in the Dochas Centre are having their children taken care of either by
family or foster parents. Life can be more difficult for these women as mothers do not
just bring their own crimes and problems with to the prison they bring their domestic
concerns with them as well (Quinlan, 2010:97). All interviewed agreed with the above
statement and the prison experience was stressful for both mothers and their families
concerned.

The next theme that emerged was physical contact between mothers and children and
visitation rights. All interviewed agreed about the importance of maintaining contact
with their children, physical contact is allowed between mother and child and the only
thing the prison officers really look out for is the passing of drugs between parties. Visits
are for half an hour every week and there are no visits on Mondays and Wednesdays they
take place in the visiting area where there is adequate tables and chairs and a play area
for children. During the course of the interviews it emerged that some mothers have a
preference not to tell their children they are in prison as they do not want their children
seeing them in there. Instead they chose to say they were away at work or in hospital.
The mothers are under no obligation to tell their children the truth it is entirely up to
them, some mothers fear the shame and embarrassment and for others they don’t want to
humiliate their children by having to go through security and a sniffer dog which some
children fear. This type of security has been in place since 2009 and is one which John
Lonergan did not want imposed in the Dochas Centre as it wasn’t family friendly. For
mothers who don’t tell their children they are in prison it transpired how the importance
of phone contact was crucial in order to maintain the familial bond. Mothers are allowed
to phone their children for 6-15 minutes every day and then the call is automatically cut
off this keeps the mothers connected to their children’s lives without them seeing each
other. The Irish Prison Service Strategy Statement 2001-2003 included in it the aim of

24
examining the possibility of the increased levels of telephone contact between prisoners
and families by the end of 2001. Currently there are problems in the prisons about
mobile phones and the 2009 annual report states this, the Irish Prison Service remains
committed to finding a solution to the illicit use of mobile phones and in 2009 there were
40 mobile phone seizures in prisons. It would be a good idea to maybe have a telephone
room with landlines available so mothers could contact their children and maybe have
the time increase to 30 minutes per day. This is especially important to those mothers
who do not feel comfortable about having their children come to visit them in prison or
who have told them they were somewhere else.

5.2 The Effects of Parental imprisonment on Children:

The experience of visiting a mother in prison can be especially tough for children very
often they are not told the reason their mother is in prison and sometimes they are told
their mother is in hospital or away working. During the course of the interviews certain
themes emerged about the experience visiting a parent in prison had on children. Some
of the interviewee’s admired the fact mothers didn’t want their children to see them in
prison for fear of the embarrassment and fear it caused children especially the search
process. Others felt if the children were made aware of their mother’s sentence it would
be easier in the long term. Other reasons for children not visiting their mothers were
because relatives felt it was not in the best interest of the child and in a way it was
teaching the mother to behave more responsibly by demonstrating that mothers should
not end up in prison in the first place. Nevertheless, it did not make life any easier for the
children involved. Children posted in cards, letters and pictures to their mothers as a way
of keeping the communication going and all were checked by security for content before
being forwarded on to the mothers. Sheehy (2010) highlighted in her article the
importance of prison visits in order for the families to remain in contact. She also found
if families were treated well by prison staff it made visiting the prison less fearful. What
her article recommends is more information regarding the visiting process. This concurs
with Quinlan (2010) where she found not many women prisoners had heard of the

25
Visiting Committee, which is the only committee in the prison were the inmates can get a
hearing that is not of the control or management structure of the prison. Maybe in the
future this could be highlighted to women when they are admitted.

For children who are living with foster parents the social worker makes the arrangements
for the child to visit their parent in prison to ensure the continuation of the mother-child
relationship. The child is not only missing out on life with their mother, their lives can
be affected in other ways as well. Children can experience a change in their behaviour as
a result of their mother’s absence, their school work can suffer and so too can their
personality because of the extra stresses placed on them. Alison Leibling and Shadd
Maruna discuss this in the Effects of Imprisonment (2005) children with a parent in
prison perform less academically in school with the main reason being separation anxiety
and a lower quality of parenting because of parental absence. This would suggest that
Judges should think carefully before administering harsh sentences for mothers. As John
Lonergan (2010) points out the previous process of temporary release was effective for
females as their crimes were petty in comparison to males and it is a retrograde step in
the treatment of female prisoners who should be with their children. In some of the
interviews the respondents felt prison did rehabilitate the mothers and encouraged them
not to return they were looking forward to being re-united with their children again. This
would suggest that another type of sentencing programme might be a better one which
would focus on issues relating to parenting and children. A report by the National
Economic and Social Forum (2002) recommended the need for sentences be introduced
which would require the consultation of the prisoner with the main emphasis on
reintegration into society and the reduction of recidivism. Maybe a new system of
sentence management should be introduced were instead the mother is sentenced for 2
years she would be placed on a 6 month sentence, then the rest of the sentence to be
served with her being electronically tagged and allowed live with her children. This
would be monitored by probation staff and depending on how she served her sentence
would be released or made register for another programme.

26
5.3 Rights of the child to family life:

During their mother’s incarceration the child’s right to family life has been hampered due
to the fact the main caregiver is now absent from their life and children in situations like
these are often referred to as “orphans of justice”. This can result in stigma and shame
for the child as a result of their mother’s imprisonment. During the course of the
interviews carried out it emerged that extended families were mentioned by the majority
of mothers as the main source of support. Some mothers do not want to discuss their
imprisonment with anyone and kept it in the family. Staff also mentioned most of the
women in prison were from disadvantaged areas were having a parent in prison was more
acceptable as it may have come about due to financial circumstances and less stigma was
attached to imprisonment in some areas. Children regard family occasions such as
birthdays, Christmas, Communions and Confirmations important times when family
should all be together. As a result of a parent being in prison especially the mother all of
these occasions become harder to organise. It emerged from the questions answered in
the interviews the majority of mothers did get release for events such as Communions
and Confirmations, other occasions like birthdays and Christmas mothers stayed in
prison and had contact by telephone, cards or visits prior to the occasion. The mother
would go to the Governor to request temporary release for Communion or Confirmation
then the Governor would make a request to the Irish Prison Service and it would be the
responsibility of the Irish Prison Service to grant temporary release of not. In the
majority of cases temporary release would be granted so the mother could take part in
special events like Communion or Confirmation and be with her child. Lonergan agrees
that these are important celebrations in any child’s life and feels that every effort should
be made so the mother can attend (2010: 156).

Many problems arise within the child’s life due to parental imprisonment and the staff
interviewed all came to the consensus it could affect the child’s family life and their
personal development. With a parent in prison especially the case if it’s the mother the
children are faced with the following problems, single parenting, financial problems,

27
visiting arrangements and stigma. Single parenting becomes inevitable when the mother
is incarcerated as there is only one parent left to do what was previously done by two
parents. Single parents are more likely to find themselves in financial difficulties and
they may want to compensate for their mother’s absence by giving into their child’s
demands for material good. According to the Bedford Row Family Project (2008)
having a family member in prison can have both emotional and financial effect on
families. In order to maintain the mother-child relationship all of the literature has
proved so far that contact is needed and this is best done through visits. Visits are the
mother’s outside link with the world and the nearest connection she has with her child.
However, visiting can cause its problems especially if they are not family friendly and
the caregiver is a family member who feels it is not in the child’s best interest to visit the
prison. Here this may conflict with the rights of the child according to Article 9(3) of the
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 24(3) of the European Charter of
Fundamental Rights, and Article 18.5 of the European Convention on Human Rights.
Finally stigma is attached to families and especially the child if their parent is in prison,
as a result of stigma the child may become more withdrawn especially in school or may
become involved in anti-social behaviour as a result. Murray and Farrington (2005)
found that boys were more likely to become involved in anti-social behaviour if their
parent was in prison and Stanton (1980) found children of imprisoned mothers did less
well in academic studies than those whose mothers were on probation instead. This is a
very important finding from the interviews discussed because if the harmful effects of
parental imprisonment were shown to have a detrimental effect on the child’s family and
school life maybe they might change sentencing policy and switch to one which is more
probation based instead.

5.4 Help for mothers post-release:

The final section in the interviews was on the topic of post-release support for mothers.
All those interviewed were asked questions about post-release support for mothers and in
what way could these services be improved to make the transition from prison to

28
mainstream society easier. While the mothers are in the Dochas Centre they are all
entitled to take up the training and rehabilitation courses that are offered and they are
under no obligation to participate all participation is voluntary. In 2009 the rates of
participation in education for the Dochas Centre was 54.5% which is relatively high in
comparison with other institutions according to the Irish Prison Service Annual Report
2009. Exchange House an organisation for members of the Travelling Community run
parenting courses which many of the Travellers participate in. Parenting courses for the
rest of the mothers in the Dochas Centre are run sporadically throughout the year
unfortunately this brought up negative experiences for the mothers as it related to
incidences of abuse and neglect that took place in their own childhood. Due to the
predominantly disadvantaged background many of the mothers where from, the writer
got the impression these women did not have their basic needs met before entering prison
and when they participated in programmes such as parenting skills or self assertiveness
classes it was only then they realised how underprivileged they actually were. The
Governor likened this to Maslow and his “Hierarchy of Needs” which all humans have to
have before they reach their true potential or self actualization. Before the mothers leave
the Dochas Centre the community welfare officer ensures all the women have
accommodation and financial assistance before they depart. Outside organisations such
as Barnardos and the St. Vincent de Paul help with accommodation, finance and family
problems. The social worker contacts the local community groups in the woman’s area
to see which ones best suit their needs.

Many of the mother’s look forward to being re-united with their children and families
post-release especially if they were living with their children prior to imprisonment.
However, this is not the case for all mothers unfortunately some due to their drug habits
and other reasons were living apart from the children. During the course of the
interviews the writer was informed it is the social worker who decides when is the right
time for the mother and child to be re-united and is always done in the best interest for
the child. At the end of the interviews the writer wanted the staff’s opinion on whether
future rehabilitation programmes to help mothers post release would be offered by the

29
Dochas Centre. The writer was reassured parenting courses, addiction courses and
counselling services are ongoing in the Dochas Centre and suggestions from the writer
that there could be a need for parenting days would take a lot of organising. It would
appear then that any suggestions for an improvement to services would take more time
and have to be researched further.

30
6: Context of the Research:

It would seem from the literature discussed the prison experience for mothers in Ireland
can be very negative from both a social and economic point of view. Generally women
commit fewer crimes than men. First let us look at the typology and the background of
the female prison population in Ireland there are about 130 women in prison in Ireland.
They are held in one of the following three places, the Dochas Centre, Limerick Prison
and in the Central Mental Hospital. The typical female prisoner is from an under
privileged background, serving a short sentence and usually for nuisance crimes. Most
of these women are from certain postal districts in Dublin who are generally drug
dependent, in poor health, with perhaps multiple pregnancies, they were strong
recidivists, young malnourished drug addicts (Quinlan, 2010: 94). A similar pattern was
found in a survey of female prisoners in Mountjoy women’s prison (Carmody and
McEvoy, 1996). According to the Irish Penal Reform Trust (2000) far fewer women
than men pass through the criminal justice system:

‘They are cautioned, convicted and imprisoned much less frequently. This is true
for all age groups and every type of offence’.

In 2008 women represented only 3.5% of the total daily average population in Irish
Prisons. This is in line with a general trend from the foundation of the state, in which the
number of women imprisoned has decreased and the prison has become an ‘increasingly
male-dominated institution’ (Irish Prison Service, 2008; Breen and O’Sullivan, in press).
It is reasonable to assert from the above statistics that in general women commit very
little crime and when they do it is mostly petty crimes.

Following on from the interviews with the staff in the Dochas Centre and evaluating their
responses it is reasonable to believe there are many training, educational and
rehabilitation programmes available to the women incarcerated there. However due to
the short sentences imposed many women felt it was not worth their while participating

31
in courses which they may fail to complete. Nevertheless, the Dochas Centre still
facilitated training and rehabilitation initiatives and there is a great emphasis placed on
self improvement and training in the courses which are run there. All courses are run by
the VEC (Vocational Education Committee) and accredited by FETAC. Many of the
Travelling women participated in the parenting courses run by Exchange House an open
house run by members of the Travelling community. The staff of the Dochas Centre
spoke about the Connect Project which initiated in 1998 and introduced to the Dochas
Centre in 2000. The aim of this course was to focus on the offender’s transition from
custody via the use of training with the ultimate aim to help the offender reintegrate into
the community and the work force post-release. The Connect Project was divided into
three categories. Firstly the Options programme, which provides offenders with an
opportunity to explore career options and take part in personal development modules,
including parenting courses. Secondly the programme consists of the Individual
Programme Planning Process this sets out long and short-term, personal and vocational
goals for each participant so the programme is individualised to the needs of the person.
Finally on completion of both programmes the participant can gain access to the certified
training programmes available. As part of this programme the Dochas Centre did run a
parenting course in the past unfortunately many of the women found it traumatic because
they related it to incidences of abuse that took place in their own childhood. This
inevitably led to the abandonment of the Connect Project and no other programme like it
has taken its place other than the training and parenting courses currently on offer in the
Dochas Centre. In a recent report (Whitaker Report 20 Years On 2007) another reason
for the abandonment of the Connect Project was because the programme was sacrificed
by the then Justice Minister Michael McDowell in his battle with the prison officers
association about overtime. The writer would argue that if another type of Connect
Project was run in the future it could be a success but only if it contained the following
variables, the course should be run in conjunction with the women already in prison and
include a counselling service. Just like the way John Lonergan asked the female inmates
what they would like the Dochas Centre to feature, so too should the women who are
about to embark on a training and rehabilitation project which could change their lives.
It was one of the recommendations in Strategy 11 of the Irish Prisons Service Strategy

32
Statement, 2001-2003 that parenting courses be made available in all prisons where
appropriate and this is especially the case in the Dochas Centre. If the facilitators of the
new project could liaise with the women and ask what they felt was needed it might
make the course more user friendly with higher participation rates and higher completion
rates. Additionally they should also include a Psychotherapist who would recommend
leaving out sensitive and taboo topics while also advising the facilitators what could be
included to benefit self esteem and self actualisation.

During the interviews conducted the writer got the impression many of the women in
prison never had their basic needs met both in a functional sense such as adequate food,
education, health but also their psychological needs as well. Such a statement deserves
closer attention because many leading Psychologists would argue that if a person does
not get these basic needs met as a child they will find it hard to cope with adult life.
Abraham H. Maslow came up with the idea of a hierarchy of needs that every individual
needs to have in order for them to reach their true potential or self actualization.
According to Maslow in his book Motivation and Personality every child needs an
organised and structured world rather than an unorganised or unstructured on (1970:40).
All people in society also some level of personal self-esteem and for the esteem of others
Maslow classifies this in two subsidiary sets. The first set is, the desire for strength, for
achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence in the face of the
world, and for independence and freedom. The second set is status, fame and glory,
dominance, recognition, attention, importance, dignity and glory. All of these feelings
produce in humans the needs required to reach self-actualization and what we are capable
of. But thwarting of these needs produces feelings of inferiority, of weakness, and of
helplessness. Some of these positive needs were not met for the women before they
came to the Dochas Centre it would seem clear that with the help of rehabilitation and
training maybe these women could gain some recognition and a sense of fulfilment.

33
During their incarceration mothers often find the prison experience hard to cope with
because in general women are more likely to be the primary care-givers than men and
their incarceration can disrupt family life. International literature also looks at the
harmful effects of maternal imprisonment on women and their families. According to
Joyce Arditti and April Few in their article ‘Maternal Distress and Women’s Re-entry
into Family and Community life’, Family Process Journal (2008) they discuss the
harmful effects of imprisonment of mothers coming to the consensus that incarceration of
mothers results in “the triple effect” of depression, domestic violence, and substance
abuse especially if all of these conditions were present previous to incarceration. Like
Quinlan (2010) and Lonergan (2010) both previously stated mothers don’t just leave their
problems behind when they come to prison they bring all their previous problems with
them. Incarcerated mothers brought into the criminal justice system are poor,
undereducated, and have been subject to physical, emotional and sexual trauma (Bloom,
2003). This study also outlined the need for counselling when mothers were suffering
from distress, medication alone was not enough for these women. The mere fact their
ties were severed from their children added to their trauma as they redefined how they
viewed themselves as parents. Prior to imprisonment many of these women lived with
their children, unfortunately they were both physically and mentally absent because of
their drug habit. It seems the majority of the incarcerated mothers felt their mother-child
relationship followed the pattern of leaving and reuniting, feelings of guilt which were
heightened by the demands of parenting arising from substance abuse and incarceration.

During their time in prison the majority of mothers have to renegotiate mothering roles in
prison and upon release. This was made extremely difficult especially if siblings were
split up and the care-giver was not a family member. According to (Young & Revier,
2006) this posed a challenge for incarcerated mothers while also causing conflict and
undue stress. The vast majority of incarcerated mothers expressed a strong desire to be
re-united with their children and get back to normality. Unfortunately normality proved
to be rather difficult as many of these women lacked the support mechanisms which
would enable them to do so. Many were homeless and lacked employment and all of this

34
was much more difficult if the mother was a single parent with no support networks.
During the course of the interviews for the thesis the writer did discuss the topic of
homelessness and financial aid for mothers post release and was reassured that
accommodation and financial aid was available and arranged pre-release by the social
worker so no mother would be left destitute. Charity organisations such as Vincent de
Paul help with accommodation and the all financial entitlements due are organised by the
community welfare officer. The Irish Penal Reform Trust (2000) declares that women
who are released from prison are confronted by poverty, homelessness, instability and
violence, all of which contribute towards making recidivism likely. The specific
problems that female prisoners can face on release are recognised by the Council of
Europe Recommendation on the social effects of detention.

This article has very important ramifications for prison policy and practice both in
Ireland and in other jurisdictions Arditti and Few argue what is needed for incarcerated
mothers is holistic health care, parenting interventions and broad re-entry support aimed
at empowering mothers and garnering resources. The United States have more people in
prison than any other country (Liptak, 2008) the female rate of incarceration is 8.8% with
70% of females being mothers according to the International centre for prison studies
(2010). Surely if they want to reduce the rate of incarceration they will need appropriate
and effective support programmes to help prisoners function in mainstream society.
What they recommend is that visits in prison should be centred on the requirements and
development of the child. In their opinion what is needed is the cooperation of the
caregiver to facilitate visits, and psychological support for all involved to emotionally
debrief after visits. They recommend the need for “parenting programs” which would
alleviate distress and aid mother-child relationships. In particular what is vital for
maintaining mother-child relationships is the role of the immediate family. Family
caregivers are more likely to facilitate children’s connections with their imprisoned
mothers than are foster parents (Grant, Gordon & Cohen, 1997). All of this is vital to
sustain their family and community networks post release from prison to prevent the
intergenerational consequences of incarceration.

35
It is reasonable to believe the mother-child relationship suffers when the mother is
incarcerated causing her to be distressed and worry about her family. Let us now
consider how all of this affects the child and their rights to family life. In the words of
Shaw (1992:196) visitation rights in prison tend to be always seen as the rights of the
inmate but never the rights of the child,

‘It is not surprising, therefore, that visits are seen as the right (or privilege) of the
inmate; never as the right of the child to maintain a relationship with its father or
mother’.

In both a domestic, European and International law the rights of the child to maintain
contact with their imprisoned parents refer specifically to their right to contact with
parents. Domestically the Child Care Act 1991, the Children Act 1997, and the Children
Act 2001 prioritise rights and responsibilities towards children. In addition to this, the
Irish Prison Service Strategy Statement, 2001-2003 makes specific references to the
importance family have on the rehabilitation of prisoners. In a European context the
European Convention on Human Rights Article 8.15 stresses the rights of children whose
parents are in prison are explicitly protected:

‘Any child who has one or both parents in prison must be allowed to maintain
contact with them’.

Finally in an international legal context all children have a right to contact with their
parents if it is in the best interest of the child the United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child Article 9 (3)

‘States Parties shall respect the rights of the child who is separated from one or
both parents to maintain personal and direct contact with both parents on a
regular basis, except if it is contrary to the child’s best interests’.

36
Ireland ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child into law on 28th
September 1992, and by doing so promised to defend the rights of the child. Here it
explicitly states children have the right to maintain contact with the parent from whom
they are separated, unless it is not in the best interest of the child. This article is very
important for the children of prisoners as it ensures they have the same rights of their
imprisoned parent to maintain contact so the parental relationship is maintained.

The writer has shown that legally children are protected by laws to ensure their rights to
maintain contact with their parents are enshrined. Unfortunately even if they do maintain
contact with their parents through prison visits there are far reaching consequences for
children of parental imprisonment on children. Alison Liebling and Shadd Maruna in The
Effects of Imprisonment (2005) drew our attention to the lack of research done on the
effects of imprisonment on children and the mere fact it is an area of academia that is
currently neglected. One of the most harmful effects is families are forced to survive on
reduced incomes which can have far reaching consequences to the life chances of the
child. The writer would argue what is needed are longitudinal studies taken over the
child’s life course which would look at the long term and intergenerational consequences
of the effects of parental imprisonment on children. The ideal study according to
Liebling and Maruna would test the effect of parent-child contact on children during
parental imprisonment, future studies should measure child well-being using different
sources, control for parent-child relations prior to imprisonment, and devise sensitive
measures of different types of contact (2005:455). Unfortunately this has been very
difficult to achieve to date partly because it is difficult to interview children without their
parent’s permission and mothers in prison may not allow their children to be interviewed
because sometimes their children are unaware of their parent’s imprisonment and the
stigma associated with it.

37
7: Discussion:

This study has highlighted many of the important issues concerning the prison experience
for mothers and how it affects their child’s life. The importance of how mothers are
treated in prison was explored and the training and rehabilitation programmes available
to them also. For mothers, in particular it is crucial the prison experience does not
become a revolving door with little or no opportunity to self-improve and hopefully
eventually lessen the likelihood of recidivism. Greater efforts need to be made to enable
mothers to reintegrate into society. This can be done by rehabilitative measures such as
holistic health care, parenting interventions, and re-entry support aimed at empowering
mothers and garnering resources. Coping with family arrangements and how mothers
maintain the dual role of both mother and prisoner was looked at this was done with the
help of extended family, probation officers and social workers. Then the importance of
contact between mothers and children was emphasised as being crucial to maintaining
the familial bond. Finally, the rights of the child to family life were explored and contact
with their mother was seen as fundamental to their emotional happiness and cognitive
development according to all the literature discussed. The rights of the child to family
life is hampered when a parent is imprisoned from both a legal and a human rights
context it is engrained in the Irish Constitution of how important the family is and
according to Article 41.1 of Bunreacht na hEireann (1937) theoretically it can justify the
right of the child to maintain contact with their parents even though current prison policy
may not be seen to reflect this because prisons are not family friendly. Article 41.1
which is defined by the Supreme Court ensures the child has a right to belong to a family
and to have the family protected.

‘The State recognises the Family as the natural primary and fundamental unit
group of Society, and as a moral institution possessing inalienable and
imprescriptible rights, antecedent and superior to all positive law’.

What is in fact needed is a more family friendly visiting arrangement within the Irish
Prison Service so children are not embarrassed to visit their mothers in prison nor afraid

38
to go because of the security in place such as the use of the sniffer dog, the canine unit
became operational in all prisons in 2009 (Irish Prison Service Annual Report 2009).
The Dochas Centre visiting area does not look very like a prison but unfortunately the
security procedure to get to the visiting area could be very frightening for young children
in particular. One way in which this could be improved is the training of prison staff
which work in the security area. While it is reasonable to believe that security concerns
must be given priority in the visiting facilities other techniques could be used that would
not be as frightening for children such as hand held metal detectors. If a system like this
was implemented it may encourage more children and families to visit over the long term
thus keeping the connection between mother, child and family together. It is important
for mothers to have access to the outside world and the ability to maintain the frequency
of contact with family members this plays a vital role in the rehabilitation of prisoners, as
is in accordance by Rule 65 (C) of the European Prison Rules:

‘Prison should be managed so as to sustain and strengthen those links with

relatives and the outside community that will promote the best interests of
prisoners and their families’.

Frequency of contact between mother and child would make their relationship stronger
and eventually making it easier for both of them to make a family life together post-
release.

The current system of temporary release needs to be amended, according to the Irish
Prisons Service Annual Report 2009 it states the Criminal Justice (Temporary Release)
Act, 2003 and the Prisoners (Temporary Release) Rules 2004 the Act provides a clear
and transparent basis, as well as the necessary safeguards required, for the operation of
the system of temporary release. Unfortunately, this is not the case in reality and as far
as John Lonergan is concerned the current system of temporary release lacks clear
guidelines and it could be used in a more effective manner by reducing overcrowding in
prisons while also granting prisoners special leave to attend family occasions. Let us

39
begin with the statistics from the Irish Prisons Service Annual Report 2009, which states
the average daily number of persons who were on temporary release in 2009 was 535.
That accounts for 12% of the average daily total number of prisoners in the system. If
temporary release was used in a more effective way and this percentage was increased it
could reduce the overcrowding problem currently facing the Irish Prison Service. A
recent article in The Irish Times by crime correspondent Conor Lally has criticised the
Irish Prison Service for playing down overcrowding. The research was carried out by the
Inspector of Prisons, Judge Michael Reilly who found the prisons were artificially
increasing the bed capacity in prisons to make it appear as if there is enough space to
house all of the inmates in those jails. The true extent of the overcrowding was found to
be much higher than the Irish Prison Service had initially expected. Judge Michael
Reilly in his estimates revealed the correct amount for all prisons in Ireland. The actual
overcrowding for the Dochas Centre was at 52% and according to the Irish Prison
Service their estimate was 23%. Initially the Dochas Centre was built with a bed
capacity of 85 with the average number in custody in 2009 was 110 according to the Irish
Prison Service Annual Report 2009. Latest figures for 2011 reveal two different results
compared with the number according to the Irish Prison Service and the actual number
according to the Inspector of Prisons. The Irish Prison Service claim to have 129 in
custody with a bed capacity of 105 and overcrowding at 23%, while the Inspector of
Prisons reveal the true bed capacity to be at 85 making the overcrowding greater at 52%.
These figures would comply with the message from the current Governor of the Dochas
Centre Mary O’Connor and the former Governor Kathleen McMahon who claimed there
was an issue of overcrowding in the Dochas Centre.

What Irish prison policy needs to do is to look to other countries to see what models they
have developed to cope with the problems that children experience when their parents are
in prison. Britain, Denmark and Australia have all developed prisons which are child
friendly and so has America. British, Danish and Australian programmes will be
described in brief but it is the American model which the writer would like to discuss in
detail as an international model of excellence which could be implemented here. Several

40
British prisons have become more family friendly so as to ensure contact is maintained
between families throughout the sentence. Prisons have introduced both children’s visits
and family visits which are usually facilitated by voluntary agency staff. These visits
usually last between a half and a whole day and usually include lunch for the whole
family. The main aim of this is to strengthen existing family relationships. In Denmark
the system is slightly different and based on communal living. Horserod which is mixed
and the largest correctional facility in the country, contains a family unit that is separate
from the main complex. The child lives with their parents in their unlocked rooms as
well as this parents and children are free to leave the unit and mix with the local
community. Certain conditions apply depending on which sentence the parent is given
and contracts are signed between the parent and the Governor before a parent is admitted
to the family unit. In Australia it varies depending on what territory the prison is in
whether children are allowed to stay with parents. Since 1988 Victoria has operated a
prison policy of permitting children in prison which is aimed at maintaining family
relationships between parents and children. Children are allowed to stay with parents
providing it is in the best interest of the child and complies with prison management and
policy. The American model is relatively new and was implemented in March 2008 in
the Indiana Women’s Prison as a response to the increasing rate of female prisoners in
America particularly mothers who currently account for 70% of the female prisoner
population. This programme is called the “Wee Ones Nursery (W.O.N)”, it is a
voluntary programme available for pregnant offenders who met eligibility criteria with
the sole aim of providing parenting education and to ensure quality time to strengthen the
mother-infant bond during the initial months after the infant is born. It was copied from
a similar programme already in operation in the state of Ohio. Before an offender is
admitted to the programme they have to meet the W.O.N criteria this tests the offender’s
suitability for the programme. If they are successful they sign a contract agreeing to
obey by the rules and fully complete the programme. Mothers and babies have private
rooms in one housing unit. The programme includes the ongoing training of the mothers
in child development and attachment. It is run with the help of trained nannies from the
offender population who also live on the housing unit, and help the mothers care for their
babies while the mothers attend classes. The programmes offered to the mothers help

41
them come to terms with situation and improve their life chances post release. Courses
focus on family history, family communications, healthy relationships and child
development. The Governor of the prison said the aim of the programme was to reduce
recidivism rates among the female prison population in Indiana as 70% of them were
mothers. Its success will depend on if this number is reduced and as the programme is in
its early years only time will tell. Currently there are no statistics on whether the
recidivism rate was reduced or not, the last report for recidivism rates was done in 2007
before the W.O.N programme was implemented. If this model was implemented in
Ireland it would comply with the European Prison Rules for women and infants by
providing the necessary measures to ensure their welfare is protected. Rule 36.2 states,

‘Where such infants are allowed to stay in prison with a parent special provision
shall be made for a nursery, staffed by qualified persons, where the infants shall
be placed when the parent is involved in activities where the infant cannot be
present’.

Any new policies which are implemented by the Government should first consult with
those currently working in the prisons. Policies should first consider the financial,
emotional and psychological burden placed upon the carers of children affected by
parental incarceration. This is crucial for a new sentencing policy e.g., when prison
sentences are handed down, the prisoner’s family or carers who need immediate
psychological and financial support should be informed by the relevant personnel where
and how to obtain counselling services and financial relief respectively. This is vitally
important for children of imprisoned parents. Improved coordination between the many
government agencies Health Service Executive, Department of Social Welfare, Housing
and Education are necessary to meet the needs of the child especially because children of
imprisoned parents are more likely to perform less academically and experience more
financial and emotional problems than their peers whose parents are not in prison.

42
8: Conclusion:

In conclusion it would appear from all the points discussed the writer has gained a
valuable insight into the prison experiences of mothers in Ireland and the how it affects
their children from both an emotional and bonding sense. Originally the idea behind the
main research question asked, “Born Free the experiences of motherhood in prison and
the rights of the child to family life?” Was initially trying to find out how mothers cope
with having babies in prison and rearing them until they have to part with their baby.
Now the writer knows the real life situation is very different indeed and it is generally the
case the majority of the mothers have children before they come to prison and it is
through the help of probation officers, social workers and extended family that they do
cope while in prison. For women who are currently pregnant in prison or have recently
had their babies while in prison the general procedure is the mothers are allowed to keep
their babies with them for a year and then they are handed over to a caregiver usually a
family member or else foster parents. All of the areas set out in the introduction were
explored and analysed, the findings of both the literature review and the interviews in the
Dochas Centre largely concur. What surprised the writer the most was the lack of
awareness and research into the effects parental imprisonment has on children and this
research is mostly lacking in an Irish context especially with regards to longitudinal
research. It must however be recognised what can be done to ensure the right of the child
to visit their parent in prison is protected. The writer would like to envisage that with the
new implementation of the Children’s Act in the future this right would be enshrined into
it and maybe with the consultation of staff currently working in the area of prison policy
their opinions would be taken into consideration.

43
9: Recommendations:

Finally we must ask ourselves how can the situation for mothers in prison and their lives
of their children be improved. The following recommendations are what the writer
would suggest could make conditions in the future better for the Dochas Centre and Irish
prison policy in general.

The first recommendation is the implementation of a “Wee Ones Nursery (W.O.N)” as is

currently the practice in the Indiana Women’s Prison in America. In March 2008 this
programme was implemented for the dual purpose of reducing recidivism rates among
mothers while also trying to provide parenting education and to ensure quality time to
strengthen the mother infant bond during the initial months after the infant’s birth.
Mothers and their babies have private rooms in one housing unit. A small number of
trained nannies from the offender population also live on the housing unit, and assist the
mothers in caring for their infants while the mothers attend classes, counselling
appointments, family parenting courses. The programme also includes ongoing training
of the mothers in child development and attachment. Before the mother is admitted to
the programme she must meet certain criteria e.g. not guilty of child abuse and the
offender must be willing to sign a contract agreeing to abide by all the rules and
indicating she will participate fully in the programme. If the offender meets the criteria
required she is then admitted to the programme. This model was modelled after a similar
programme in Ohio and could be implemented here. By implementing a programme
like this it would comply with the core aim of the thesis by ensuring the mother-child
bond is continued.

The second recommendation is the implementation of a newly structured “Parenting

Programme” which would seek the views of the women in prison allowing their ideas to
be inputted into the programme. It could also take some of the ideas from the W.O.N
programme e.g. family healing and group therapy while also drawing on some aspects

44
from the Connect Project and tweak them to make it a success. By implementing a
programme like this it would comply with another objective of the thesis by ensuring the
prison experience for women is for rehabilitation and to reduce recidivism rates.

The third recommendation is for a document or book to be published on “Visitor’s

Rights” which would detail their rights in accordance with the law both domestic,
European and International. In it should include how many visits they are entitled to
especially over Christmas, Bank holidays and school holidays which should allow more
than one visit per week as children and adults are usually freer at this time. All prisoners
should be made aware of the “Visiting Committee” and how it is an impartial service and
there to meet their needs. By doing this it would strengthen the mother-child relationship
because they would have more contact and know their entitlements, which is another
objective of this thesis.

The fourth recommendation is one which the former Governor John Lonergan proposed
which is to reform the current system of temporary release. The current system lacks
transparency because prisoners and their families are unaware of what the exact criteria
is for granting temporary release. If the system was improved it would reduce
overcrowding and would comply with the rights of the child by allowing mothers to be
released for family occasions. From children’s rights perspective and one of the main
aims of the thesis this would only enhance their family life.

The final recommendation is for the encouragement of family contact between mothers
and their children. All of the literature discussed agreed this was paramount to the
maintenance of familial bonds and this should be encouraged throughout the period of
incarceration for the family no matter how brief of long. One of the core values of the
Irish Prison Service Annual Report 2009 is to help prisoners, where possible and
appropriate, to maintain relationships with their families. This can be done through

45
effective prison management when negotiating sentencing with prisoners and also with
the help of social workers, access workers and probation officers who are already
working with prisoners and their families. If all of the above were implemented into
prison policy the prison experience for mothers would be one which ensures their
rehabilitation while also strengthening their relationships with their children.

46
10: Bibliography:

Arditti, J. and Few, A. (2008) ‘Maternal Distress and Women’s Re-entry into Family and
Community Life’ Family Process, Vol. 47(3): 303-321.

Bedford Row Family Project. (2008) Voices of Families Affected by Imprisonment.

Limerick: Bedford Row.

Bloom, B.E. (2003) ‘A new vision: Gender-responsive principles, policy and practice’.
In: B. Bloom (ed.). Gendered justice: Addressing female offenders. Durham: Carolina
Academic Press.

Barnardos Information Pack Available form:

http://www.barnardos.ie/assets/files/information-pack/child-protection%202010.pdf
[Accessed 28 July 2011].

Boswell, G. and Wedge, P (1999) The Parenting Role of Imprisoned Fathers, London:
Department of Health.

Breen, J. (2010) ‘Secondary Effects of Imprisonment: The New Direction of Prison

Research’, Irish Probation Journal, Vol. (7): 46-63.

Carmody P. and McEvoy, M. (1996) A Study of Irish Female Prisoners, Dublin:

Department of Justice.

Centre for Social and Educational Research (2002) ‘Parents, Children and Prison:
Effects of Parental Imprisonment on Children’. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology.

Council of Europe, 1997, Recommendation 1340 (1997) on the Social and Family Effects
of Detention, (www.http://cm.coe.int/dec/1999/676/62.html.

Dissell, A. (1995) Report on Correctional Services tour to Denmark, Holland and Britain
Available from: www.csvr.org.za/wits/papers/papadtor.htm [Accessed on 28 July 2011].

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
Available from: http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318B459-
5C901496D7A/A/O/EnglishAnglais.pdf [Accessed 2 Aug 2011].

European Prison Rules Available from: http://www.eurochips.org/recommended-

reading/legislative-documents/European-Prison-Rules/ [Accessed 2 August 2011].
Grant, R. Gordon, S. G. & Cohen, S.T. (1997) ‘An innovative school-based
intergenerational model to serve grandparent caregivers’. Journal of Gerontological
Social Work, Vol. 28: 47-61.

Healy, K, Foley, D and Walsh, K. (2000) Parents in Prison and Their Families:
Everyone’s Business and No-one’s Concern, Brisbane: Catholic Prison Ministry.

47
Indiana Department of Correction (2011) Wee Ones Programme (W.O.N) [Internet]
Indiana, IDOC Available from: http://www.in.gov/idoc/2857.htm [Accessed 28 July
2011].

International centre for prison studies (2010) [Available from]

http://www.prisonstudies.org/info/worldbrief/wpb-country.php.?country=190 [Accessed
28 July 2011].

Irish Penal Reform Trust, 2001, (http://www.penal-reform.ie/policies/women.htm.

Irish Prison Service, (2001) Irish Prison Service Strategy Statement 2001-2003, Dublin:
Irish Prison Service.

Irish Prison Service, (2008) Annual Report 2008, Dublin: Irish Prison Service.

Irish Prison Service, (2009) Irish Prison Service Annual Report 2009, Dublin: The
Stationary Office.

Maslow, Abraham H. (1970) Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper & Row
Publishers.

Lally, C. (2011) Prisons are playing down overcrowding, studies show. Irish Times, 8
August, p. 4.

Lewis, S., Bates, S., and Murray, J. (2008) ‘Children of Prisoners: Maintaining family
ties’. London: Social Care Institute for Excellence.

Liebling, A. and Maruna, S. (2005) The Effects of Imprisonment, Cullompton: Willan.

Liptak, A. (2008) More than 1 in 100 adults is now in prison in U.S. New York Times, 29
February, p. A14.

Lonergan, J. (2010) The Governor The Life and Times of the Man Who Ran Mountjoy,
London: Penguin.

Maslow, Abraham H. (1970) Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper & Row
Publishers.
Murray, J. and Farrington, D.P. (2005) ‘Parental imprisonment: effects on boys’
antisocial behaviour and delinquency through the life-course’, Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 46(12): 1269-1278.

Murray, J. and Farrington, D.P. (2007) ‘Crime in adult offspring of prisoners: A cross-
national comparison of two longitudinal samples’, Criminal Justice and Behaviour, vol.
34(1): 133-149.

48
National Economic and Social Forum (2002), Reintegration of Prisoners Forum Report
No. 22, Dublin: National Economic and Social Forum.

Shaw, R. (1992) ‘Imprisoned fathers and the orphans of justice’. In: R. Shaw (ed.).
Prisoners’ Children: What Are the Issues? London: Routledge Publishing.

Sheehy, D. (2010) ‘Staying Connected: Families’ experiences of visiting an imprisoned

relative and implications for social work practice’. Critical Social Thinking: Policy and
Practice, Vol. 2: 140-156.

Stanton, A. (1980) When Mothers go to jail. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Tudball, N. (2000), Doing it Hard: A Study of the Needs of Children and Families of
Prisoners in Victoria, Victoria: Victoria Association for the Care and Resettlement of
Offenders.

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child Available from:

http://www.unicef.org/crc/ [Accessed on 28 July 2011].

Whitaker, T. K. (1997) The Whitaker Report 20 Years On Available from:

http://www.iprt.ie/files/whitakerreport2007.pdf [Accessed on 12 August 2011].

Young, V. & Reviere, R. (2006) Women behind bars: Gender and race in US prisons.
Boulder, Co: Reinnar.

Quinlan, C. M. (2010) Inside Ireland’s Women’s Prison Past and Present. Dublin: Irish
Academic Press.

49
11: Appendices:

Questionnaire for staff at Dochas Centre

Prison experience for Mothers:

Q1: What offences are the women in prison for?
Q2: What are their ages, social background and criminal history?
Q3: Are their training and education opportunities available for all women prisoners?
Q4: How many mothers are there in the Dochas Centre?
Q5: Are there any new mothers living here with young babies and if so, what is the
living arrangements for their babies also how long can they stay with their
children?
Q6: On arrival at the Dochas Centre were they informed by a Probation Officer about
what would happen to their Children while they are in prison?
Q7: What happen if the children can’t be taken care of by a parent of family member?
Do social services step in?
Q8: How is contact between mother and child maintained while their mother is in
prison?
Q9: How long are the visits and is physical contact allowed and are visits regular?
Q10: Can the mother and child correspond by other means, e.g. are they allowed phone
calls and if so how many and for how long?
Q11: Are mothers allowed day release for special events such as their children’s
birthday, communion and confirmation?

The effects of parental imprisonment on children:

Q1: Is the child told their mother is in prison?
Q2: If so does the child feel embarrassed and do they still maintain contact?
Q3: Is the child’s teacher aware of the child’s parent being in prison?
Q4: Does their mother’s sentence change their behaviour in school?
Q5: Can the child avail of services such as a counsellor to help them cope while their
mother is in prison?
Q6: If in the case the child is not being looked after by a family member and they are
placed in the care of foster parents whose job is it to see the child maintains visits
with their mother?
Q7: How are visits organised between mother and child when the child is living with
foster parents?

Rights of the child to family life:

Q1: How often do children have phone contact with their mother while she is in
prison?
Q2: Are children allowed contact with their mother through cards and letters?
Q3: If it’s the child’s birthday can the mother get day release so they can celebrate
together?

50
Help for Mothers post-release from prison:
Q1: Are mothers offered parenting courses to help them cope with parenting when
they are released from prison?
Q2: Does the Dochas Centre have any links with outside organisations to help the
mother and child post-release?
Q3: What sort of agencies are they?
Q4: On release from prison will most mothers be re-united with their children if the
children were not living with them prior to imprisonment?
Q5: Do you think it would be a good idea in the future to run parenting days in the
Dochas Centre so mothers are made more aware of what is expected from the?

51
Interview with the Governor of the Dochas Centre

All of those interviewed were basically asked the same questions some questions were
left out if they were deemed inappropriate. This is their responses, Q refers to question
and A refers to answer.

Prison experience for Mothers:

Q1: What offences are the women in prison for?
A: Varies from shoplifting to murder, for fines 90% are released on the day or next
day. The majority are serving 3-6months.
Q2: What are their ages, social background and criminal history?
A: The majority are in their 20s, most come from an underprivileged background
were their basic needs are not met e.g. homeless, feeding a drug habit.
Q3: Are their training and education opportunities available for all women prisoners?
A: Yes the VEC provide the education courses and participation is voluntary.
Q4: How many mothers are there in the Dochas Centre?
A: Approximately 50% are mothers (here Ms. Mary O’Connor had a list of all the
inmates and double checked that figure for me).
Q5: Are there any new mothers living here with young babies and if so, what is the
living arrangements for their babies also how long can they stay with their
children?
A: Yes there is one baby girl who lives with her mother babies can stay with their
mother for a year. When the baby is between 5 and 6 months the social worker
arranges visits between the caregiver who is due to look after the baby while the
mother is still in prison, depending on the mother’s sentence etc. These are
arranged so the baby can get use to the new caregiver over time visits are longer
so the transition is not as hard for both mother and child.
Q6: On arrival at the Dochas Centre were they informed by a Probation Officer about
what would happen to their Children while they are in prison?
A: The Probation Officers is one of the first people that a prisoner meets when they
enter prison, the Social Worker through the HSE would update the mother about
her children and usually this is organised before their mother is imprisoned
Q7: What happen if the children can’t be taken care of by a parent of family member?
Do social services step in?
A: Yes
Q8: How is contact between mother and child maintained while their mother is in
prison?
A: Through visits, phone calls and letters.
Q9: How long are the visits and is physical contact allowed and are visits regular?
A: Visits are every week for 30 minutes and physical contact is allowed.
Q10: Can the mother and child correspond by other means, e.g. are they allowed phone
calls and if so how many and for how long?
A: Yes phone calls are allowed everyday for 6 minutes.
Q11: Are mothers allowed day release for special events such as their children’s
birthday, communion and confirmation?
A: Generally not for birthdays but for communion and confirmation most are granted
leave for the day. The process is as follows, they apply to Governor for leave

52
 then their application goes to the Irish Prison Service who decides whether to
either approve or refuse the request. Most are granted release for special occasion
in the majority of cases they are refused only if they are a high security prisoner
or for fear they would escape.

The effects of parental imprisonment on children:

Q1: Is the child told their mother is in prison?
A: It depends on the circumstances some are told their mother is in hospital others
are told their mother is working abroad. There are pros and cons to both because
of the stigma associated with having a parent in prison. When children are told
their mother is in hospital they worry about her being sick on the other hand when
they are told their mother is working abroad they get anxious and wonder why
she does not want to be with them. At least if they are told the truth they know
their mother is away because she can’t be with them.
Q2: If so does the child feel embarrassed and do they still maintain contact?
A: Maybe because of the stigma attached most do stay in contact it all depends on
the dynamics of the relationship in the first place. A lot of the children find the
search procedures both embarrassing and frightening.
Q3: Is the child’s teacher aware of the child’s parent being in prison?
A: Again it all depends on the relationship some teachers are made aware especially
if the child is suffering from stress and anxiety. Mothers are allowed to phone the
school this is done with the help of the social worker if the social worker feels it
is in the child’s best interest.
Q4: Does their mother’s sentence change their behaviour in school?
A: It all depends on the child and their age how they cope. Social workers usually
help with this if they feel the child is suffering.
Q5: Can the child avail of services such as a counsellor to help them cope while their
mother is in prison?
A: None of this is provided by the prison service the HSE and social workers look
after this.
Q6: If in the case the child is not being looked after by a family member and they are
placed in the care of foster parents whose job is it to see the child maintains visits
with their mother?
A: The probation officers have links with the HSE and social workers so the right
channels are used. It is the social workers who bring the children to visit their
mothers not the foster parents.
Q7: How are visits organised between mother and child when the child is living with
foster parents?
A: Social workers make the arrangements and the appointments for the visits.

53
Rights of the child to family life:

Q1: How often do children have phone contact with their mother while she is in
prison?
A: Mothers are allowed to phone their children every day.
Q2: Are children allowed contact with their mother through cards and letters?
A: Yes many children send in pictures and birthday cards?
Q3: If it’s the child’s birthday can the mother get day release so they can celebrate
together?
A: It depends on the sentence the mother is doing and what category of prisoner she
is. Generally they don’t get time off for birthdays mostly the Irish Prison Service
only temporary release for Communions and Confirmations.

Help for Mothers post-release from prison:

Q1: Are mothers offered parenting courses to help them cope with parenting when
they are released from prison?
A: Yes the VEC offer all the educational courses run in the Dochas Centre, the
courses are recommended to the women all up take is voluntary. Prior to this we
had the CONNECT project which was put on hold, many of these women found
the course psychologically stressful as it brought back painful experiences in their
life.
Q2: Does the Dochas Centre have any links with outside organisations to help the
mother and child post-release?
A: The probation officer usually links in with local community groups where the
mother lives.
Q3: What sort of agencies are they?
A: Barnardos
Q4: On release from prison will most mothers be re-united with their children if the
children were not living with them prior to imprisonment?
A: No especially if it was a case of child abuse the social worker decides whether the
mother is capable of looking after her children, generally the feeling is the mother
can’t cope before prison it will take her a good while before she can cope again.
Everything has to be done for the best interest of the child.
Q5: Do you think it would be a good idea in the future to run parenting days in the
Dochas Centre so mothers are made more aware of what is expected from the?
A: As I said the VEC run parenting courses sporadically over the year, parenting
days may be hard to police and it would depend on staffing levels too. At the
moment we are overcrowded and there is a new building being constructed in the
Dochas Centre, maybe this may address the needs of both mother and child in the
future.

54
55
Interview with two prison officers in the Dochas Centre:

Prison experience for mothers:

Q1: What offences are the women in prison for?

A: They are in for a variety of reason, vast majority petty theft and drug related
offences. Many offenders have reoccurring offences some were early school
leavers left at 14years of age others were expelled and got involved with gangs.
Q2: What are their ages, social background and criminal history?
A: Most are aged between early to mid 20s and from underprivileged areas in Dublin
others are from Athlone and Portlaoise. There are some foreign nationals also
mostly from South Africa and Romania. Most of the South African women have
their children in care if it is to do with immigration issues.
Q3: Are their training and education opportunities available for all women prisoners?
A: Yes they are run and staffed by the VEC courses include, hairdressing, sewing,
kitchen work, photography and English, Maths classes, literacy classes and
spelling classes. The foreign nationals have a very high level of attendance for
the courses provided.
Q4: How many mothers are there in the Dochas Centre?
A: There is one mother and baby in the Dochas Centre.
Q5: Are there any new mothers living here with young babies and if so, what is the
living arrangements for their babies also how long can they stay with their
children?
A: Mothers usually stay in the privileged housing which is called Hazel, there is no
mother and baby unit her. Depending on whether the mother is breastfeeding the
length of time the baby spends with their mother is usually one year.
Q6: On arrival at the Dochas Centre were they informed by a Probation Officer about
what would happen to their Children while they are in prison?
A: For new committals a Probation officer meets them and they are given a needs
assessment.
Q7: What happen if the children can’t be taken care of by a parent of family member?
Do social services step in?
A: Yes usually this is sorted about beforehand all is arranged by a social worker.
Q8: How is contact between mother and child maintained while their mother is in
prison? Through visits
Q9: How long are the visits and is physical contact allowed and are visits regular?
A: Visits are usually one visit a week for half an hour; there are no visits on Monday
and Wednesday. The place is currently understaffed, physical contact is allowed
as children naturally want to be close to their mothers. The Dochas Centre’s
visiting area contains a play area for children, and visits take place around tables,
with mothers being allowed to have physical contact with their children. We just
keep an eye out for drugs which can be passed around. They are usually used as a
means of barter in the prison.
Q10: Can the mother and child correspond by other means, e.g. are they allowed phone
calls and if so how many and for how long?
A: Yes their mother is allowed to call them every day for 15minutes.

56
Q11: Are mothers allowed day release for special events such as their children’s
birthday, communion and confirmation?
A: Usually they are allowed for special occasions such as Communions and
Confirmations. It depends on the Governor and the length of the sentence.

The effects of parental imprisonment on children:

Q1: Is the child told their mother is in prison?
A: Sometimes they aren’t told if their mother is in here for fines usually they say
they are on holidays. When children come to visit they often think we are the
police because of our uniforms which are now compulsory a couple of years ago
we could wear civilian clothes.
Q2: If so does the child feel embarrassed and do they still maintain contact?
A: It depends on the age of the child most do stay in contact.
Q3: Is the child’s teacher aware of the child’s parent being in prison?
A: Does their mother’s sentence change their behaviour in school?
Q5: Can the child avail of services such as a counsellor to help them cope while their
mother is in prison? N/A
Q6: If in the case the child is not being looked after by a family member and they are
placed in the care of foster parents whose job is it to see the child maintains visits
with their mother?
A: The social worker
Q7: How are visits organised between mother and child when the child is living with
foster parents?
A: The social worker

Rights of the child to family life:

Q1: How often do children have phone contact with their mother while she is in
prison?
A: They are allowed weekly visits and their mother can phone them every day.
Q2: Are children allowed contact with their mother through cards and letters?
A: Yes they can write letters and send birthday cards.
Q3: If it’s the child’s birthday can the mother get day release so they can celebrate
together?
A: Usually no day release is usually only given for Communions and Confirmations
this is done through the Governor and the Irish Prison Service where the final
decision is made.

Help for Mothers post-release from prison:

Q1: Are mothers offered parenting courses to help them cope with parenting when
they are released from prison?
A: Yes childcare and parenting courses are run by the VEC. There have been some
independent courses run for 3 week. Mothers can also avail of work in the
Dochas Centre they can work in the kitchens, take care of the grounds. Exchange
House organise parenting courses for the Travellers.

57
Q2: Does the Dochas Centre have any links with outside organisations to help the
mother and child post-release?
A: Yes voluntary groups such provide work and so do community groups.
Q3: What sort of agencies are they?
A: Barnardos and Aware.
Q4: On release from prison will most mothers be re-united with their children if the
children were not living with them prior to imprisonment?
A: The probation officers and social workers would know about that.
Q5: Do you think it would be a good idea in the future to run parenting days in the
Dochas Centre so mothers are made more aware of what is expected from them?
A: Right now we are understaffed there were 31 here now it’s 11. Lonergan did try
and create a therapeutic environment for the women in here. His was a very
forward thinking man and his policies were very advanced for the current Irish
Prison Service. Lonergan did have a Santa’s Grotto here for children at
Christmas but that is now gone probably because of issues with staffing and
security.

58
Interviews with three probation officers in the Dochas Centre

Prison Experience for mothers:

Q1: What offences are the women in prison for?
A: The women are in for a variety of offences ranging from theft, assault, drugs
which they receive longer sentences. A lot are recidivists three women are in
here for child abuse and some foreign nationals are here awaiting deportation.
The minority are here for manslaughter and murder. Information is available on
the Irish Prison Service Website.
Q2: What are their ages, social background and criminal history?
A: All ages mostly the women are in their mid to late 20s and from an
underprivileged background. There profile varies.
Q3: Are their training and education opportunities available for all women prisoners?
A: Yes the VEC run courses which are accredited by FETAC, courses include
hairdressing, industrial cleaning, kitchens and literacy courses. Women who are
serving longer sentences are more likely to avail of long distance learning. Some
of the African women avail of Open University courses. There is an addiction
studies course available which is run by Merchant’s Key.
Q4: How many mothers are there in the Dochas Centre?
A: The majority are mothers at least 55% are, currently 10 women are pregnant and
there is one mother and baby here.
Q5: Are there any new mothers living here with young babies and if so, what is the
living arrangements for their babies also how long can they stay with their
children?
A: Yes there is one mother here with her baby they are allowed stay with their baby
for a year and the mother has sole responsibility of caring for the child. Towards
the end the baby will have visits from preferably a family member who is willing
to take on the baby. This is so the baby can bond with the caregiver and they can
build up a relationship.
Q6: On arrival at the Dochas Centre were they informed by a Probation Officer about
what would happen to their Children while they are in prison?
A: The women usually know before they come here about what will happen to their
children. Often the Judge will allow time for this and take account of the
mother’s circumstances before sentencing, solicitors also advise them.
Q7: What happen if the children can’t be taken care of by a parent of family member?
Do social services step in?
A: Yes the HSE and social workers become involved.
Q8: How is contact between mother and child maintained while their mother is in
prison?
A: Mothers are allowed to phone the children for 6 minutes every day
communication is automatically cut off after that. Weekly visits are allowed for
an hour and there is no visiting on Sundays. It also depends on the initial
relationship the mother and child have sometimes the children are in care prior to
their mother’s conviction and links may have been severed.
Q9: How long are the visits and is physical contact allowed and are visits regular?

59
A: The visits are one hour long every week, mothers and children do have physical
contact.
Q10: Can the mother and child correspond by other means, e.g. are they allowed phone
calls and if so how many and for how long?
A: Yes phone calls are allowed for 6 minutes every day. Children often send letters
and cards in, all checked by security. The prison library also provide the service
of facilitating mothers to record their voices on tape so the children can be read a
bedtime story.
Q11: Are mothers allowed day release for special events such as their children’s
birthday, communion and confirmation?
A: For Communions and Confirmation generally yes, they are all very individual
cases the child might not want their mother there. Mothers ask the Governor for
Temporary Release the Governor requests permission from the Irish Prison
Service and approval is granted through them.

The effects of parental imprisonment on children:

Q1: Is the child told their mother is in prison?
A: It is up to their mother to tell them, depends on the circumstances. It is
encouraged to explain to the child in an appropriate way why their mother is in
prison many children are told their mother is in hospital or away working.
Q2: If so does the child feel embarrassed and do they still maintain contact?
A: Sometimes it depends on the age of the child also sometimes grandparents don’t
want the children to visit the mother because it might upset the children it all
depends on the individual circumstance. Children can find the search procedure
frightening and one child didn’t want to visit because he was afraid of the sniffer
dog.
Q3: Is the child’s teacher aware of the child’s parent being in prison?
A: Depends again on the situation the mother would give permission for that if a
Social Worker is concerned for the child’s well being they would make it aware
to the mother and maybe then their teacher would be told.
Q4: Does their mother’s sentence change their behaviour in school?
A: The child can often become withdrawn and may feel stigmatised.
Q5: Can the child avail of services such as a counsellor to help them cope while their
mother is in prison?
A: The HSE usually organise this through a social worker. Barnardos or family
support groups also help.
Q6: If in the case the child is not being looked after by a family member and they are
placed in the care of foster parents whose job is it to see the child maintains visits
with their mother?
A: The social worker organises this, an access worker collects the child and brings
them to visit their mother. Visits are usually for 30 minutes in circumstances
where the mother is doing well longer visits can be arranged and they take place
in the visitors centre an area which is open and friendly with plenty of toys for
children. It is less informal there.
Q7: How are visits organised between mother and child when the child is living with
foster parents?

60
A: The HSE organise this through a social worker or access worker depending on the
needs of the child.

Rights of the child to family life:

Q1: How often do children have phone contact with their mother while she is in
prison?
A: Everyday
Q2: Are children allowed contact with their mother through cards and letters?
A: Yes they send in letters, pictures, mother’s day cards and birthday cards all are
checked by security before delivery.
Q3: If it’s the child’s birthday can the mother get day release so they can celebrate
together?
A: Generally for birthdays no, release is usually only given for Communion or
Confirmations.

Help for Mothers post-release from prison:

Q1: Are mothers offered parenting courses to help them cope with parenting when
they are released from prison?
A: Exchange House run parenting courses, there is also a psychology service here
which the women can avail of and the social workers put them in contact with
local community groups too. The community welfare officer ensures the women
here have accommodation and money before they are released.
Q2: Does the Dochas Centre have any links with outside organisations to help the
mother and child post-release?
A: Local community groups help with this, all is arranged by the social worker.
Q3: What sort of agencies are they?
A: Exchange House and Barnardos.
Q4: On release from prison will most mothers be re-united with their children if the
children were not living with them prior to imprisonment?
A: Again it is based on the individual case, usually if their children were in care
before imprisonment the children stay in care until the Social Worker decides
what is in the best interest of the child. If the children were living with their
mother prior to imprisonment they usually stay with relatives until their mother is
released. Depending on circumstances and needs the children are usually united
with their mother unless their mother can’t cope.
Q5: Do you think it would be a good idea in the future to run parenting days in the
Dochas Centre so mothers are made more aware of what is expected from them?
A: At the moment there are parenting courses available, parenting days may be run
in the future but it would take a lot of organising.

61
Letters of Approval from the Irish Prison Service and Consent forms
sent from UCD

62