ROLE OF CARBON FILLERS ON THE TRIBOLOGICAL

BEHAVIOR OF EPOXY COMPOSITES

PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

JAYASHANKAR J (312016114055)

JEFERY J (312016114056)

KINGSLEY V (312016114063)

RANJITH K (312016114109)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
JEPPIAAR SRR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
SEPTEMBER 2020

1
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “ROLE OF CARBON FILLERS ON THE

TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF EPOXY COMPOSITES” is the bonafide
work of ―JAYASHANKAR J (Reg.no. 312016114055), JEFFERY J
(Reg.no.312016114056), KINGSLEY V (Reg.no. 312016114063),
RANJITH K (Reg.no. 312016114109)” who carried out the project work
under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr.B.RAJENDRAPRASADH, M.E., Ph.D., Mr.T.MICHEL RAJ, M.E.,
PROFESSOR AND ASSISTANT PROFESSOR AND
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
DEPARTMENT OF DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
JEPPIAAR SRR ENGINEERING JEPPIAAR SRR ENGINEERING
COLLEGE COLLEGE
OLD MAHABALIPURAM ROAD, OLD MAHABALIPURAM ROAD,
PADUR, PADUR,
CHENNAI-603 103 CHENNAI-603 103

Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on at JEPPIAAR

SRR Engineering College, Chennai-603 103

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to express our profound gratitude and deep regard
to our beloved Founder Chairman (Late) Col. Dr. JEPPIAAR M.A., B.L.,
Ph.D., for enlightening our lives and showering heavenly blessings forever.

We also express our heartfelt thanks to our Chairman and Managing

Director Dr. REGEENA JEPPIAAR B.E., M.B.A., Ph.D., for her kind co-
operation and keen interest for the success of the project.

We are immensely happy to accord the warmth of gratitude to our Director

Mr.MURALI SUBRAMANIAN for being the beacon in all our endeavours.

We express our profound gratitude to our Principal Dr.A. EZIL SAM

LENI B.E., M.E., Ph.D., for bringing out novelty in all executions.

We express our thanks to our Head of the Department

Dr.B.RAJENDRAPRASADH, M.E., Ph.D. for her valuable suggestions and
guidance for the development and completion of this project.

We are highly thankful to our project Internal Guide Mr. T. MICHEL

RAJ, M.E., for guidance and encouragement in carrying out this project work.

We are much obliged to all our teaching and non-teaching staff members for
their valuable information and constructive criticism that immensely contributed to
the development of the project.

Above all, we wish to avail this opportunity to express a sense of gratitude

and love to our beloved parents and friends for their moral support and constant
strength at various stages of our project.

3
 ABSTRACT

Fiber-reinforced composites are mainly used in aircraft structures, reaction vessels,

pressure vessels, Electrical insulators and many other industrial applications due to
their preferable specific stiffness and strength properties. The main drawbacks of
GFRP composite laminates are that they are sensitive to vulnerable environmental
influences and subsequently lose their properties. GFRP composites are unable to
withstand high wear and high corrosive environments and cannot sufficiently
prevent electromechanical force from destroying. A Series of industrial practices
has been used for GFRP composite damage protection. Nevertheless, only very
few of them deal with tribological behaviour of composite laminates. This
project aims a simple and low cost method with multiple technical benefits. The
tests will be conducted on plate-type GFRP composite specimens with quasi-
isotropic laminates. A comparison of different weigh percentage of carbon fillers
will be investigated at different testing levels.

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .................................................................................................................. vi

Table of Contents ................................................................................................. xiii

List of Tables ....................................................................................................... xvii

List of Figures..................................................................................................... xviii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………1

1.1 FRP composite……………………………………………………………………..1

1.2 Types of Failures in FRP…………………………………………………………...2

(a) DELAMINATION………………………................................................2

(b) FIBRE PULL OUT AND DEBONDING………………………………...3

(c) MATRIX MICROCRACKING…………………………………………..4

1.3. Lightning strike on Composite……………………………………….……..…….5

CHAPTER 2: LITRATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 8

2.1. Physics of Lightning Strike ……………………………………………….…..……8

2.2 Direct effects of lightning strike on composite……………………………...….……9

2.3. Lightning surface flashover on non conductive composite structures……………..11

5
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING …………12

3.1 Composite material ………………………………………………………………....13

3.2 Reinforcements………………………………………………………………...…...15
3.2.1 Glass Fibres …………………………………………………………...15

3.2.2 Aluminium……………………………………....................................17

3.3 Resins………………………………………………………………………............18

3.3.1 Epoxy……………………………………………..............................18

3.4 Manufacturing Process…………………………………….....................................19

3.4.1 Hand Lay-UP…………………………..............................................19

3.4.2 Spray UP……………………….........................................................21

3.4.3 Compression Moulding…………………...........................................22

CHAPTER 4: TRIBOLOGICAL EVALUATION………………………………....24

4.1 Principle of pin-on-disk measurements……………………………………………24

4.2 Test procedure and conditions……………………………………………………..25

4.3 Wear measurement………………………………………………………………...26

4.4 Wear volume and Wear rate……………………………………………………….28

CHAPTER 5: MECHANICAL TESTS………………………………………………31

5.1 Tensile test ……………………………………………………………….………...31

6
5.2 Hardness test………………………………………………………………………….34

5.3 Density : Archimedes Principle………………………………………………………35

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ................................................................................. .36

References ................................................................................................................. .37

7
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. FRP COMPOSITE

Composite materials are designed to achieve desirable mechanical and
functional responses via a combination of at least two constituent phases. In
general, matrix phase (e.g. epoxy, polyester, etc.) and reinforcement phase (e.g.
carbon fibers, aramid fibers, carbon nanotube, etc.). The matrix phase serves as a
basis for the composites by surrounding and supporting the reinforcement to
maintain the relative positions of the reinforcement and meanwhile transfer loads.
The reinforcement phase enhances the matrix properties by imparting their special
physical or chemical properties. By adjusting the volume fractions of matrix phase
or reinforcement phase, desired properties can be customized include stiffness,
thermal behavior, electrical behavior, and strength to weight ratios among many
others. Composite materials are not merely designed for structural support, they
can also be multifunctional, such as energy storage, actuation, age selfsensing,etc.
Due to the superior properties, composite materials are showing promise
applications in aerospace structures, wind turbine structures, etc. The composite
materials used on wind turbine blades are typically glass-fiber reinforced polymer-
matrix (GFRP) composite prepress. The advantages that make GFRP composites
so widely used for wind turbine blades include their superior strength to weight
ratio, cost effectiveness, design flexibility, durability, corrosion resistance, and
electrical non-conductivity. Another type of composite material that has intrigued
the interest of wind turbine blade manufacturer is the carbon-fiber-reinforced
8
polymer-matrix (CFRP) composite. It is known to be much lighter and stronger
than GFRP composite.

1.2. TYPES OF FAILURES IN FRP

(a) DELAMINATION

Delamination is a critical failure mode in composite structures, not

necessarily because it will cause the structure to break into two or more pieces, but
because it can degrade the laminate to such a degree that it becomes useless in
service. The interfacial separation caused by the delamination may lead to
premature buckling of the laminate, excessive vibration, intrusion of moisture,
stiffness degradation and loss of fatigue life. The delamination though in some
cases may provide stress relief and actually enhance the performance of the
component. Delamination may be introduced during processing or in service
conditions. It may result from low velocity impact, from eccentricities in the
structural load path or from discontinuities in the structures which may induce a
large out of plane stress. Even in the absence of such discontinuities delamination
may also result from inplane compressive loading causing global or local buckling.
In addition to mechanical loads, the moisture and temperature may also induce
inter laminar stresses in a laminate. These may be the results from the residual
thermal stresses caused from cooling from processing temperatures and residual
stresses created by the absorption of moisture. The delamination may lead to
redistribution of stresses which would eventually promote gross failure.

9
(b)FIBRE PULL OUT AND DEBONDING

At some distance ahead of the crack the fibers are intact. In the high stress
region near the tip, they are broken, not necessarily along the crack plane.
Immediately behind the crack tip fibers pull out of the matrix. In some composites
the stress near the crack tip could cause the fibers to debond from the matrix before
they break. When brittle fibres are well bonded to a ductile matrix, the fibers tend
to snap ahead of the crack tip, leaving bridges of matrix material that neck down
and fracture in a completely ductile manner. In addition to these local failure
mechanisms, on reaching the interface of the two laminate in a laminated
composite, a crack can split and propagate along the interface, thus producing the
delamination crack.

The most significant property improvement in fibre reinforced composites is

that of fracture toughness. Toughness is quantified in terms of the energy absorbed
per unit crack extension and thus any process which absorbs energy at the crack tip
can give rise to an increase in toughness. In metallic matrices, plastic deformation
requires considerable energy and so metals are intrinsically tough.

In fibre reinforced materials with both brittle fibres and brittle matrices,
toughness is derived from two sources. Firstly, if the crack can be made to run up
and down every fibre in its path the there will be a large amount of new surface
created for a very small increase in crack area perpendicular to the maximum
principal stress INTERFACIAL ENERGY - and in order to get the fibres to break
they have to be loaded to their fracture strength and this often requires additional
local elastic work, and secondly if the fibres do not break and therefore bridge the

10
gap then work must be done to pull the fibres out of the matrix - FIBRE
PULLOUT. Using simple geometric models we can estimate the contribution of
each of these processes to the overall toughness of the composite.

Fig.1.1.Failure mode of Composite

(c) MATRIX MICROCRACKING:

The first form of damage in laminates is often matrix micro cracking. They
are intralaminar or ply cracks that traverse the thickness of the ply and run parallel
to the fibres of the ply. The most common observable micro cracking is cracking in
the 900 plies during axial loading in the 00 direction. These micro cracks are
transverse to the loading direction and are often termed as the transverse cracks.
Micro cracks may be observed during tensile loading, during fatigue loading,
during changes in temperature and during thermo cycling.

Micro cracks can form in any plies but predominantly they are found implies
off axis to the loading axis. The immediate effect of the micro cracks is to cause
11
degradation in the thermo mechanical properties of the laminate including changes
in all effective modules, Poisson‟s ratio and thermal expansion coefficients.
Another detrimental effect of the micro cracks is that they nucleate other forms of
damage such as induction of delamination, fibre breakage or provide pathways for
the entry of corrosive liquids. Such damage modes may subsequently lead to
laminate failure.

The first micro crack causes very little changes in the thermo mechanical
properties of the laminate. Continued loading however normally leads to additional
micro cracks and additional micro cracks and continued degradation in the thermo
mechanical properties. A change in temperature induces residual stresses between
the plies and hence can lead to micro cracking. Due to the presence of moisture as
well can induce residual stresses that can subsequently influence micro cracks.

1.3. LIGHTNING STRIKE ON COMPOSITE

Wind turbine blades are the obvious point of lightning attachment, being the
highest point of a wind turbine. However, the high resistivity of the materials used
in typical blades means that they do not conduct lightning current without the risk
of significant damage.

It was thought during the development of older models of wind turbines that
blades containing no metallic elements (i.e. the type of blades used on pitch-
regulated turbines) would not attract lightning strokes and therefore did not require
protection. An early lightning protection symposium gave conflicting opinions
when the need for blade lightning protection was discussed.6 However, it has been
12
shown that the blade serves as a preferential path for the lightning current in
comparison to the air. A simple experiment within a high-voltage laboratory shows
this is to be expected, since surfaces have lower electrical breakdown strength than
the air around them.

When lightning attaches to an unprotected wind turbine blade that contains

no metallic parts, it can travel in one of three locations. It can travel on the outside
surface, the inside surface or within the blade laminations.

Lightning attaching to an unprotected blade usually takes more than one of

these paths, creating a type of damage that can be described as stitching. This
occurs when a lightning discharge makes a hole in the blade, progresses a certain
distance inside the blade and then jumps back out. This may happen repeatedly,
leading to a stitching pattern that was generated artificially in a high-voltage
laboratory.
When stitching occurs, the bulk of the damage is caused by the formation of
an extended internal arc either inside the blade or between blade laminations.
A lightning discharge can cause a temperature rise of approximately 30,000 K and
produce a high-pressure shock wave that can exert a large force. This shock wave
would be heard as thunder if it was propagating through air. The length of the arc
and the blade construction are two of the factors that will determine the level of
observed lightning damage following the lightning strike.
Damage can range from split trailing edges (generally the weakest part of
the blade construction and hence liable to spring open) to complete destruction of
the blade. In a number of cases observed by the authors, it is thought that the high-
pressure shock wave in one blade has propagated into the other blades via the hub,

13
resulting in complete destruction of the rotor. It is not known what percentage of
lightning strokes attaching to an unprotected blade will simply form a path down
the outside of the blade and cause no damage, but with an average of two to three
strokes per lightning flash the chance of lightning damage to an unprotected blade
is high.
A blade fitted with no lightning protection system but containing metallic
elements (such as a tip brake mechanism for stall regulation) is more vulnerable to
lightning damage. Even if the mechanism is of a suitable size to carry the lightning
current, there will be significant damage at the lightning attachment point where
the blade skin must be penetrated to reach the conductive element. There have
been a number of occasions when early stall-regulated blades have been struck and
the tip brake control cable has been damaged after it has been heated by the
lightning current.

CHAPTER 2

14
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. PHYSICS OF LIGHTNING STRIKES

Lightning discharge is essentially dielectric breakdown of the air (~3

MV/m), which is initiated by a large electric field established between the cloud
and the earth or between two clouds. Air molecules are ripped apart, leaving free
electrons and positive ions due to the large electric field. The electric field between
the cloud and the earth or between two clouds accelerates these charges, causing a
rapid charge motion, which heats the nearby air molecules and leads to a rapid air
volume expansion emanating sound waves (thunder). As the lightning channel
briefly becomes a plasma, the surrounding air temperature can be heated up to
50,000 °F, which is almost five times the temperature of the Sun’s surface. The
lightning plasma channel can discharge an electricity current up to 200 kA. In the
process of the lightning discharge, the plasma channel also emits light, radio
waves, x-rays, and even gamma rays. Lightning discharge includes one or more
intermittent partial discharges; each component discharge is called a stroke.
Typically, lightning strike consists of four strokes: initial stroke, intermediate
stroke, continuing stroke, and restrike stroke.
Prior to the first lightning return stroke, a weakly luminous lightning stepped
leader travels through the air towards the ground attempting to arrest the answering
Leaders emitted from the grounded structures. Once the lightning stepped leader
connects with the answering leader, the first luminous lightning return stroke is
formed. The distance between the lightning stepped leader and the grounded
structure prior to the connection with the answering leader is called the lightning
striking distance.
15
 Common structures that can emit answering leaders are electrically
conductive such as transmission towers, TV towers, etc. However, electrically non-
conductive structures (e.g., GFRP composite wind turbine blade) are also able to
emit answering leaders if conductive components or conductive contamination
(salt, dirt, moisture, etc.)The leader prior to the first return stroke is called a
stepped leader and is different from the subsequent strokes as it develops in virgin
air. The first return-stroke current has a pulsed profile with a peak reaching up to
hundreds kilo ampere.
The electric current return-stroke wave heats and pressurizes the stroke
channel leading to the rapid channel expansion, optical radiation, and shock wave
propagation in the outward direction. A short-duration pulsed current in a return
stroke is typically followed by a continuous current, whose magnitude is about two
orders of magnitude lower and three orders of magnitude longer than that of the
initial pulsed current.

2.2. DIRECT EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING STRIKE ON COMPOSITE

MATERIALS

Lightning strike poses a serious safety hazard for composite structures (e.g.,
aircrafts and wind turbine blades). The direct effects often include rapid
temperature rise, melting or burning on the lightning attachment points, and
mechanical damage due to magnetic force and acoustic shock wave (Rupke, 2002).
In particular, the non-steady lightning plasma channel is expanding in both space
and time during a short-duration pulsed current and is discharging an electric
current up to 200 kA (MIL-464-A, 1997).

16
 This leads to the direct heat flux injection at the surface of the composite
structure as well as the production of Joule heating (if the structure is electrically
conductive) through the12 composite structure. Both direct heat injection and Joule
heating lead to a rapid temperature increase in the composite structure, which often
results in severe surface damage and even catastrophic structural failure. The
material properties of the composite materials are temperature-dependent and
quickly deteriorate above the glass transition temperature.

A rapid degradation of the polymer matrix occurring at a temperature above

the glass transition temperature leads to deterioration in composite strength and
elastic moduli. Extreme heating generates an extreme temperature in the structure
and results in material phase transitions (i.e., fiber sublimation). In addition to
thermal damage, lightning strike also induces mechanical damage. The
accumulation of Joule heating due to the lightning current conduction through the
composite structure decomposes the polymer matrix and releases pyrolysis gases.

Delamination occurs when the explosive pyrolysis gases are trapped in a

substrate or between the layers of the laminated plies. If the stress caused by the
internal pressure of the pyrolysis gases exceeds the rupture strength of the fibers,
fiber breakage develops and results in surface cracks Inoue et al. (2004) studied the
relationship between the pressure rise inside the composite wind turbine blade and
the energy of a spark arc. They reported that the internal pressure between the
laminate layers of the composite wind turbine blade is proportional to the arc
energy that is enforced on the composite blade surface.

17
 Furthermore, the lightning plasma channel also produces a magnetic force
and an acoustic shock wave, which also lead to mechanical impact damage on the
composite structures (Chemartin , Lalande, Delalondre, Cheron, & Lago, 2011;
Muñoz et al., 2014). An overview of the lightning strike’s direct effects on
polymer-matrix composite structures The direct effects of lightning strikes on non-
conductive composite structures such as glass-fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix
(GFRP) composite wind turbine blades may also include dielectric breakdown
(Rupke, 2002).

When lightning hits a nonconductive composite structure, the electric field

on the attached spot will be significantly enhanced corresponding to the lightning
discharge. Once the strength of the lightning induced electric field exceeds the
dielectric breakdown strength of the composite structure, dielectric breakdown
happens. In the situation of dielectric breakdown, the nonconductive composite
structure becomes instantaneously conductive, thereby generates extensive Joule
heating through the composite structure and even leads to puncture through the
structure. It has been reported that the electrical field required to puncture a given
thickness of glass fiber or aramid fiber composite is slightly greater than that
required to ionize a similar thickness of air due to the high porosity and
inhomogeneity of the composite structure.

2.3. LIGHTNING SURFACE FLASHOVER ON NON-CONDUCTIVE

COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

When a lightning plasma arc attaches to the surface of the non-conductive

composite structure (e.g., wind turbine blades), it automatically searches for the
weakest spots (i.e., least resistant) to conduct the lightning electric current.
Flashover occurs on the surface of the structure when the strength of the electric
18
field induced by the lightning strike reaches the surface flashover field strength.
The surface flashover field strength is typically lower than dielectric breakdown
strength .Flashover is usually inevitable prior to the dielectric breakdown in the
nonconductive composite structures. The surface flashover is also known as
streamers.the electric arc streamers on a tested glass-fiber-reinforced polymer
matrix (GFRP) composite sample (Madsen et al., 2006). The streamers emitted
from the high voltage electrode above the center of the plates move toward the
edges, and connect with the ground electrodes (Madsen et al., 2006).

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING

SPECIFICATION OF COMPOSITE:

Thickness of the composite = 5mm

Glass fiber thickness = 0.7mm
No. of plies in composite = Thickness of Composite / Glass fiber Thickness
= 5 / 0.7
= 7 plies
Orientation of the fiber = 0 , 90 degrees
Density of fiber = 1.250 g / cc
Resin used = Epoxy
Weight of the resin = 448 grams

1. Weight of resin, Wresin = W Composite - Wfiber

19
 Wresin = 57.4 – 89.8
Wresin= 32.4 grams

2. Volume of fiber Vfiber = Wfiber/ ρfiber = (89.8/1.250) = 45.9 cm3

Volume of Fiber Vfiber= 45.9 cm3

3. Volume ratio of Fiber & Resin, [Vfiber / Vresin] = [Wfiber/Wresin] * [ρresin/ρfiber]

= [57.4/32.4] * [1.22/1.25]
= 1.6
4. Matrix Volume ratio, Vm = 1/ [1+ [Vfiber / Vresin]] = 1 / [1+ [57.4 / 32.4]]
Vm = 0.366

Materials used for manufacturing wind turbine blades must comply with
very strict requirements concerning the mechanical properties. For this reason
composite materials have been used widely due to a combination of high
mechanical strength and low weight.

3.1 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites are a combination of components. In our industry, composites

are materials made by combining two or more natural or artificial elements (with
different physical or chemical properties) that are stronger as a team than as
individual players. The component materials don’t completely blend or lose their
individual identities; they combine and contribute their most useful traits to
20
improve the outcome or final product. Composites are typically designed with a
particular use in mind, such as added strength, efficiency or durability.

Composites, also known as Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites, are

made from a polymer matrix that is reinforced with an engineered, man-made or
natural fiber (like glass, carbon or aramid) or other reinforcing material. The
matrix protects the fibers from environmental and external damage and transfers
the load between the fibers. The fibers, in turn, provide strength and stiffness to
reinforce the matrix—and help it resist cracks and fractures.

In many of our
industry’s products, polyester resin is the matrix and glass fiber is the
reinforcement. But many combinations of resins and reinforcements are used in
composites—and each material contributes to the unique properties of the finished
product: Fiber, powerful but brittle, provides strength and stiffness, while more
flexible resin provides shape and protects the fiber. FRP composites may also
contain fillers, additives, core materials or surface finishes designed to improve the
manufacturing process, appearance and performance of the final product.

FIBER MATRIX FIBER COMPOSITE MATRIX

21
 Fig.4.1.Composition of a Composite

3.2 REINFORCEMENTS

Many materials are capable of reinforcing polymers. Some materials, such

as the cellulose in wood, are naturally occurring products. Most commercial
reinforcements, however, are man-made. There are many commercially available
reinforcement forms to meet the design requirements of the user. The ability to
tailor the fiber architecture allows for optimized performance of a product that
translates to weight and cost savings.

Although many forms of fiber are used as reinforcement in composite

laminates, glass fibers account for more than 90 percent of the fibers used in
reinforced plastics because they are inexpensive to produce and have relatively
good strength-to weight characteristics.

3.2.1 GLASS FIBERS:

Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fiber-reinforced
plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers. Like graphite-reinforced
plastic, the composite material is commonly referred to as fiberglass. The glass can
be in the form of a chopped strand mat (CSM) or a woven fabric.

Based on an alumina-lime-borosilicate composition, ―E‖ or ―E-CR‖ glass

produced fibers are considered the predominant reinforcements for polymer matrix
composites due to their high electrical insulating properties, low susceptibility to
moisture and high mechanical properties. E-CR glass is further distinguished from
E-glass by having superior corrosion resistance properties. Other commercial
22
compositions include ―S‖ glass, with higher strength, heat resistance and modulus,
H-glass with higher modulus, and AR glass (alkali resistant) with excellent
corrosion resistance. Glass is generally a good impact resistant fiber but weighs
more than carbon or aramid. Glass fibers have excellent mechanical characteristics,
stronger than steel in certain forms. The lower modulus requires special design
treatment where stiffness is critical. Glass fibers are transparent to radio frequency
radiation and are used in radar antenna applications.

Fig.4.2.Glass Fiber sample

Glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of
surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much
more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass
fiber make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of the order of
0.05 W/(m·K)

23
3.2.2. ALUMINUM
Aluminum is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile,
and malleable metal with appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending
on the surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite. A fresh film
of aluminum serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an
excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared radiation.
The yield strength of pure aluminum is 7–11 MPa, while Aluminum alloys have
yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminum has about one-third
the density and stiffness of steel. It is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.
Aluminum atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Aluminum
has a stacking -fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2.

Aluminum is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the

conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30%
of copper's density. Aluminum is capable of superconductivity, with a
superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of
about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas). Aluminum is the most common material for the
fabrication of superconducting cubits.

24
 Fig.4.3.Aluminium Sheet

3.3 RESINS
The primary functions of the resin are to transfer stress between the
reinforcing fibers, act as a glue to hold the fibers together, and protect the fibers
from mechanical and environmental damage. Resins used in reinforced polymer
composites are either thermoplastic or thermoset.

3.3.1 EPOXY:
Epoxy resins have a well-established record in a wide range of composites
parts, structures and concrete repair. The structure of the resin can be engineered to
yield a number of different products with varying levels of performance. A major

25
benefit of epoxy resins over unsaturated polyester resins is their lower shrinkage.
Epoxy resins can also be formulated with different materials or blended with other
epoxy resins to achieve specific performance features. Epoxies are used primarily
for fabricating high performance composites with superior mechanical properties,
resistance to corrosive liquids and environments, superior electrical properties,
good performance at elevated temperatures, good adhesion to a substrate, or a
combination of these benefits. Epoxy resins do not however, have particularly
good UV resistance.

3.4 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

3.4.1 HAND LAY-UP:

26
 Fig.4.4.Hand lay-up Process
Hand lay-up is the most common and least expensive open-molding method
because it requires the least amount of equipment. Fiber reinforcements are placed
by hand in a mold and resin is applied with a brush or roller. This process is used
to make both large and small items, including boats, storage tanks, tubs and
showers.

Hand lay-up is an open molding method suitable for making a wide variety
of composites products from very small to very large. Production volume per mold
is low; however, it is feasible to produce substantial production quantities using
multiple molds.

Hand lay-up is the simplest composites molding method, offering low cost
tooling, simple processing, and a wide range of part sizes. Design changes are
readily made. There is a minimum investment in equipment. With skilled
operators, good production rates and consistent quality are obtainable.

27
 Fig.4.5.Composite fabrication using Hand lay-up process

3.4.2. SPRAY-UP:
Spray-up is similar to hand lay-up but uses special equipment most notably a
chopper gun—to cut reinforcement material into short fibers, add them to resin and
deposit the mixture (called chop) on to a molding surface. Spray-up is more
automated than hand lay-up and is typically used to produce large quantities.

In the spray-up process, the operator controls thickness and consistency,

therefore the process is more operator dependent than hand lay-up. Although
production volume per mold is low, it is feasible to produce substantial production
quantities using multiple molds. This process uses simple, low cost tooling and
simple processing. Portable equipment permits on-site fabrication with virtually no
part size limitations. The process may be automated.

28
 As with hand lay-up, gel coat is first applied to the mold and allowed to
cure. Continuous strand glass roving and initiated resin are then fed through a
chopper gun, which deposits the resin-saturated ―chop‖ on the mold. The laminate
is then rolled to thoroughly saturate the glass strands and compact the chop.
Additional layers of chop laminate are added as required for thickness. Roll stock
reinforcements, such as woven roving or knitted fabrics, can be used in
conjunction with the chopped laminates. Core materials of the same variety as used
in hand lay-up are easily incorporated.

Fig.4.6. Spray-up process

3.4.3 COMPRESSION MOLDING:

Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for
molding complex, fiberglass-reinforced polymer parts on a rapid cycle time.

There are several types of compression molding that are defined by the type
of material molded: sheet molding compound (SMC), bulk molding compound
(BMC), thick molding compound (TMC), and wet lay-up compression molding.
29
Compression molding tooling consists of heated metal molds mounted in large
hydraulic presses. The process can be automated. Compression molding enables
part design flexibility and features such as inserts, ribs, bosses and attachments.
Good surface finishes are obtainable, contributing to lower part finishing
cost. Subsequent trimming and machining operations are minimized in
compression molding and labor costs are low.

Compression molding is a manufacturing process in which composite

materials are sandwiched between two matching molds under intense pressure and
heat (from 250° to 400° F) until the part cures. This technique is used to rapidly
cure large quantities of complex fiberglass-reinforced polymer parts. Compression
molding features fast molding cycles and high part uniformity. The process can be
automated. In addition, labor costs are low and it provides design flexibility and
nice surface finishes.

Fig.4.7.Compression Molding

30
 CHAPTER 4

Tribological evaluation
Evaluations of the friction value for epoxy-carbon/glass composites were
performed on Pin-on-Disc Tribometer (CSM, Sweden). A ball of Cr6 was used as a
static partner of 6 mm diameter with a sliding speed of 15.69 cm/s under load
conditions of 5 N. To evaluate the friction co-efficient (Cf) specimens were cut
into size of 30 mm X 30 mm. Wear loss was also evaluated using Pin-on-Disc
Tribometer. All tests were performed at room temperature. The coefficient of
friction was determined from the output of the strain gauge mounted on the arm
carrying the ball (static partner). To get the consistent results multiple tests (4 to 5
readings) were taken without changing the parameters. The temperature rises due
to friction were measured using an Al–Cr thermocouple placed at a distance of 50
mm from one of the samples and 3mm above the counter-face. Table 2.6 illustrates
the various Tribo-condition used during friction test. Fig.3.20 and Fig.3.21 shows
schematic diagram of Pin- on Disc- Tribometer used for investigating frictional
properties.

4.1 Principle of pin-on-disk measurements

A flat or a sphere shaped indenter is loaded on to the test sample with a precisely
known force. The indenter (a pin or a ball) is mounted on a stiff lever, designed as
a frictionless force transducer. As the disk is rotated, resulting frictional forces
acting between the pin and the disk are measured by very small deflections of the
arm using a strain gage sensor. Wear coefficients for both the pin and sample are
calculated from the volume of material lost during a specific friction run. This

31
simple method facilitates the determination and study of friction and wear behavior
of almost every solid state material combination, with varying time, contact
pressure, velocity, temperature, humidity, lubrication, etc.

4.2 Test procedure and conditions

The instrument base is first leveled in the horizontal position by screwing or

unscrewing the adjustable rubber pads at each corner. A ball-holder containing a 3
or 6 mm diameter ball is held in the load arm and placed at a height that allow the
Tribometer arm to be leveled horizontally when resting on the sample to ensure
that normal load will be applied vertically. The arm is then balanced with counter
weights to ensure that the arm and ball holder initially apply no force on the
sample surface. Finally, weights corresponding to the load required for the test are
finely placed on the arm over the ball holder. Through software, the test is then
launched and the test is performed at a specified speed for a specified duration, and
the frictional force is recorded over time.

Fig 3.20: Schematic diagram of Pin- on Disc Fig.3.21: Pin-on Disc Tribometer.
Tribometer.

32
 Tribo Parameters
Radius of the Test 4.67-9.68 mm
Linear speed 15.69 cm/s
Normal Load 5N
Stop condition 2000 mm
Acquisition rate 1.0 Hz
Substrate Cr6 ball
Diameter of the ball 6.00 mm

Tribo parameters for evaluating coefficient of friction (Cf) values for GFRP carbon filler
composites.

4.3 Wear measurement

The wear behavior of epoxy-carbon/glass composites was determined using pin-

on-disc tribometer which was used for friction measurement. The tested samples
were in circular form which was placed on test rig with a load of 5N and a linear
speed of 15.69 cm/s. The test was run for a constant sliding distance of 2000 mm.
Samples were weighed before and after the testing to determine weight loss.
Fig.3.22 shows schematic of wear test performed on various carbon ceramic
composites. In figure R is radius of diameter, F is normal load applied, w is wear
track and D is thickness of the EC composites. Wear volume and wear rate for the
epoxy-carbon/glass composites were determined using the following equations:

33
Schematic of wear test performed on various combination of composites.

34
Graph showing Effect of filler (CB) loading on the Cf value at constant load condition.

4.4 Wear volume and Wear rate

Carbon black is generally used in rubber tyres to increase the wear resistance of the
final product. In case of carbon black and epoxy resin, the interaction between
them is due to physical adsorption i.e. they are physically attached to the epoxy
matrix network. Carbon black also have high surface to volume ratio, which means
it has high surface area. Therefore, it’s strongly interacts with polymeric/epoxy
chain. As the friction test is performed due to carbon black/epoxy interaction,
chances of coming out of wear debris are less. This leads to less wear rate and wear
volume in the epoxy/CB composites (Fig.5, 7). As the weight fraction of carbon
black increases this interaction also increases, which means wear rate and wear
volume decreases with increase in carbon black loading. Finally, wear resistance
increases with increase in wt% of carbon black in epoxy based composites product.
35
Fig 5.6 shows schematic illustration of formation of friction film on these
composites.

Schematic illustration of the asperities and the formation of friction film on the epoxy/CB
composites when the friction test is performed.

36
Variation in wear rate and volume with wt % of CB in epoxy matrix.

37
 CHAPTER 5

MECHANICAL TESTS

5.1 TENSILE TEST

Tensile Tests Measure The Force Required To Break A Plastic Sample

Specimen And The Extent To Which The Specimen Stretches Or Elongates To
That Breaking Point. Such Tests Produce Stress-Strain Diagrams Used To
Determine Tensile Modulus. Tensile Strain. Elongation And Percent Elongation At
Yield.

38
39
40
5.2 HARDNESS TESTING

The hardness testing of plastics is most often measured by the

Rockwell hardness test or Shore (durometer) hardness test. Both methods measure
the resistance of the plastic toward indentation, thereby providing an
empirical hardness value.

Sample I.D Location-1 Location-2 Location-3

c-2 65.2 65.6 70.8

c-4 77.0 74.9 74.4

c-6 72.6 74.7 78.2

41
5.3 DENSITY: ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE

Archimedes' principle states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on
a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the
weight of the fluid that the body displaces. Archimedes' principle is a law of
physics fundamental to fluid mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of
Syracuse.

Sample I.D Density, g/cm3

C-2 1.519168
c-4 1.408313
c-6 1.406197

42
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions One of the biggest challenges of this work was to synthesize
wide range of composites with various filler types. In order to make polymer and
filler compatible with each other, it is essential to create a chemical bonding
between the constituents. To obtain a good dispersion of the microparticles,
treatment with acetone agent is a vital factor. Natural graphite, carbon black, short
carbon fibers, continuous carbon fibers and glass fibers were introduced into an
epoxy resin using ultrasonic bath and magnetic stirring for further improvement of
the particle dispersion. By incorporating various fillers into polymer matrix,
properties of composites can be improved dramatically.

1. Packing density of all composites tends to increase with filler

concentration.

2. Mechanical properties show different trends depends on type of fillers.

3. For all samples trends for dissipation factor and imaginary part of
complex permittivity are different.

4. Coefficient of friction value increases with increase in filler content.

5. Wear volume and wear rate decreases with increase in filler content

43
 REFERENCES

1. International Confederation of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (ICTAC),

Nomenclature Committee, Recommendations for names and definitions in
thermal analysis and calorimetry, Document IND98030.

2. Menard K. P., (1999), Dynamic Mechanical Analysis; A Practical

Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Chapter 3.

3. Wellisch E., Marker L., Sweeting O. J. (1961), Viscoelastic properties of

regenerated cellulose, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 5, 647-654.

4. Genovese A., Shanks, R. A. (2007), Time-temperature creep behaviour of

poly(propylene) and polar ethylene copolymer blends, Macromol. Mat.
Eng., 292, 184-196.

5. Fancey K. S. (2005), A mechanical model for creep, recovery and stress

relaxation in polymeric materials, J. Materials Sci., 40, 4827-4831.

6. Wurm A., Merzlyakov M., Schick C. (1999), Temperature modulated

dynamic mechanical analysis, Thermochimica Acta, 330, 121-130.

44