Journal of

Marine Science
and Engineering

Article
Current Status of Theoretical and Practical Research
of Seawater Single-Effect Passive Solar Distillation
in Mexico
Eduardo Rubio 1, *, José Luis Fernández-Zayas 2 and Miguel A. Porta-Gándara 3
1 Centro de Ciencias de la Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Av. Universidad 940,
Col. Ciudad Universitaria, Aguascalientes, Ags. 20131, Mexico
2 Instituto de Ingeniería UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, CDMX 04510, Mexico;
jfernandezz@iingen.unam.mx
3 Engineering Group, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, BCS 23097, Mexico;
maporta@cibnor.mx
* Correspondence: erubio@correo.uaa.mx; Tel.: +52-449-910-7400




Received: 12 January 2020; Accepted: 27 January 2020; Published: 3 February 2020


Abstract: Solar distillation is a practical alternative for freshwater production in arid zones where
seawater is abundant. The attractiveness of this approach resides in the simplicity of the solar still,
equipment used to produce saline-free water for drinking, intensive agriculture, domestic use and
other purposes. A solar still is an apparatus exposed to solar radiation that consists essentially
of a basin with a solar collector where saline water is deposited and covered with a transparent
inclined glass plate. The system operates as a greenhouse where the heated seawater evaporates
and condensates on the inner surface of the cover. The distillate yield is collected in an external
container. A research group in Mexico has been working for years doing research on the process of
freshwater production with solar stills. Various research aspects have been addressed, among which
are mathematical modeling of the physical phenomenon, practical research by building solar stills
with different geometries and sizes, and the proposal of a process for mass-production manufacturing
of solar stills with technology innovations. This paper is an overview of some of the most relevant
results obtained by these research efforts.

Keywords: solar distillation; single-effect; solar energy; mathematical modeling; experimental

work; innovation

1. Introduction
Maria Telkes research on solar distillation is one of the first works that addresses the topic in
a formal and referenced manner [1]. In her work, published in 1953, the author offers a simplified
mathematical treatment of the solar distillation process, and reports the thermal efficiency of a
single-effect insulated solar still apparatus, very similar to solar stills in use today.
The main components of a single-effect solar still are shown in Figure 1. It has a thermally insulated
basin with a black absorber and covered with an inclined semitransparent condenser. Seawater is
deposited in the basin. Solar energy passes through the condenser and water, and reaches the absorber
that raises its temperature. Water is heated by the solar energy absorbed and evaporates. The water
vapor condensates when it touches the inner surface of the condenser, and runs down to a collecting
channel that drains the distilled water to an external container.
The maximum efficiency of this type of solar stills is about 34%, and productivity decreases
significantly with increase in depth of basin water. It has been observed that highest distillate yield is
obtained with cover condenser tilted same as latitude, and that thinner glass cover thickness increases

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94; doi:10.3390/jmse8020094 www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  2  of  17 

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 2 of 17

production. Insulation plays an important role in solar distillation since it reduces heat losses through
the bottom and side walls [2]. Subsequent research validates these results in similar climate [3].
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  2  of  17 

 
Figure 1. Single‐effect single‐slope condenser solar still. 

The  maximum  efficiency  of  this  type  of  solar  stills  is  about  34%,  and  productivity  decreases 
significantly with increase in depth of basin water. It has been observed that highest distillate yield 
is  obtained  with  cover  condenser  tilted  same  as  latitude,  and  that  thinner  glass  cover  thickness 
increases  production.  Insulation  plays  an  important  role  in  solar  distillation  since  it  reduces  heat 
 
losses through the bottom and side walls [2]. Subsequent research validates these results in similar 
climate [3].  Figure 1. Single‐effect single‐slope condenser solar still. 
Figure 1. Single-effect single-slope condenser solar still.

2. Thermal Description
The  maximum  of the of 
efficiency  Single-Effect
this  type  of Single-Slope
solar  stills  is Condenser
about  34%,  Solar
and Still
productivity  decreases 
2. Thermal Description of the Single‐Effect Single‐Slope Condenser Solar Still 
significantly with increase in depth of basin water. It has been observed that highest distillate yield 
Figure 2 shows the most widely used single-effect solar still where the main heat-transfer exchange
is  Figure  with 
obtained  2  shows  the 
cover  most  widely 
condenser  used 
tilted  same  single‐effect 
as  latitude,  solar 
and  still 
that  where 
thinner the  main 
glass  heat‐transfer 
cover  thickness 
modes can be observed. The characteristic feature of this still, also known as single-slope solar still,
exchange modes can be observed. The characteristic feature of this still, also known as single‐slope 
increases  production.  Insulation  plays  an  important  role  in  solar  distillation  since  it  reduces  heat 
is the use of an inclined single-plate glass condenser. Mathematical relations that describe its thermal
solar still, is the use of an inclined single‐plate glass condenser. Mathematical relations that describe 
losses through the bottom and side walls [2]. Subsequent research validates these results in similar 
operation are based on equations that result from an energy balance obtained from a lumped-parameter
its  thermal  operation  are  based  on  equations  that  result  from  an  energy  balance  obtained  from  a 
climate [3]. 
analysis. For this type of apparatus, three expressions are derived concerning each of the main
lumped‐parameter analysis. For this type of apparatus, three expressions are derived concerning each 
components of the still.
of the main components of the still. 
2. Thermal Description of the Single‐Effect Single‐Slope Condenser Solar Still 
Figure  2  shows  the  most  widely  used  single‐effect  solar  still  where  the  main  heat‐transfer 
exchange modes can be observed. The characteristic feature of this still, also known as single‐slope 
solar still, is the use of an inclined single‐plate glass condenser. Mathematical relations that describe 
its  thermal  operation  are  based  on  equations  that  result  from  an  energy  balance  obtained  from  a 
lumped‐parameter analysis. For this type of apparatus, three expressions are derived concerning each 
of the main components of the still. 

 
Figure 2. Heat-transfer exchange mechanisms in a solar still.
Figure 2. Heat‐transfer exchange mechanisms in a solar still. 

The energy balance of the still applied to the water mass, that loses energy through the bottom,
The energy balance of the still applied to the water mass, that loses energy through the bottom, 
and exchanges energy with the glass cover, is:
and exchanges energy with the glass cover, is: 

dTww = H + U (T − T ) − U (T − T )
dT
dtdt  H w  Uwb
wb (Tbb  Tw )  U wg (Tw  Tg )    
CCw w w wg w g (1)
(1) 
w

The Figure 2. Heat‐transfer exchange mechanisms in a solar still. 
condensing plate exchanges energy with seawater and the surroundings:
The condensing plate exchanges energy with seawater and the surroundings: 
dT
The energy balance of the still applied to the water mass, that loses energy through the bottom, 
dTgg = H + U (T − T ) − U (T − T )
Cg
C  Hgg  Uwg
and exchanges energy with the glass cover, is: 
g dt wg (Tw  Tg )  U ge (Tg  Te )  
w g ge g e (2)
(2) 
dt
dTenergy exchange is between the surroundings and the seawater:
For the bottom absorber, the
Cw w  H w  U wb (Tb  Tw )  U wg (Tw  Tg )  
For the bottom absorber, the energy exchange is between the surroundings and the seawater: 
(1) 
dt
dT
Cb dTbb =
b dt  H b  U bw (Tb  Tw )  U be (Tb  Te )  
C Hb − Ubw (Tb − Tw ) − Ube (Tb − Te ) (3)
The condensing plate exchanges energy with seawater and the surroundings:  (3) 
dt
dTg
Cg  H g  U wg (Tw  Tg )  U ge (Tg  Te )   (2) 
dt
For the bottom absorber, the energy exchange is between the surroundings and the seawater: 

dTb
Cb  H b  U bw (Tb  Tw )  U be (Tb  Te )   (3) 
dt
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 3 of 17

Solar radiation incidence depends on the declination [4]:

" #
2π(284 + n)
δ = 23.45 sin (4)
365

Global and beam radiation can be calculated with the following expressions [5]:

πt
 
G = Gmax cos1.2 (5)
N
πt
 
Gb = Gb−max cos1.5 (6)
N
And the number of daylight hours is given as [6]:

2
N= cos−1 (− tan δ tan ϕ) (7)
15
The radiation incident on an inclined surface can be calculated as:
cos θ
Rb = (8)
cos θz

For an angle between beam radiation and the normal to the plane:

cos θ = sin δ sin ϕ cos β − sin δ cos ϕ sin β cos γ + cos δ cos ϕ cos β cos ω
(9)
+ cos δ sin ϕ sin β cos γ cos ω + cos δ sin β sin γ sin ω

The beam radiation incident over a horizontal plane is:

cos θz = cos ϕ cos δ cos ω + sin ϕ sin δ (10)

Optical properties are also considered from equations for transmittance, reflectance and
absorptance. The transmission of energy through the glass cover is:
!
kext L
τa = exp − (11)
cos θ2

Equations for estimating transmittance, absorptance and reflectance passing through

semi-transparent media are:
    
τa  1 − r⊥  1 − r⊥ 2  1 − rII  1 − rII 2 
τ =  + (12)
2 1 + r⊥  1 − (r⊥ τa )2  1 + rII  1 − (rII τa )2 
  

1 − τa 1 − r⊥ 1 − rII
   
α= + (13)
2 1 − r⊥ τa 1 − rII τa
1
ρ=
[r⊥ (1 + τa τ⊥ ) + rII (1 + τa τII )] (14)
2
Condenser heat losses for the convective mode are [7]:

hc = 2.8 + 3.0v (15)

The radiative heat transfer exchange between the cover and the surroundings can be written as [6]:

hr = εσ(Tg 2 + Ts 2 )(Tg + Ts ) (16)

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 4 of 17

Where a sky temperature is given as [8]:

Ts = 0.0552Te 1.5 (17)

The basin loses heat by conduction and convection:

 n −1
X Li 1 
Ube =  +  (18)
ki hb 
i=1

The heat exchange between the seawater mass and the blackened solar collector is calculated
as [9]:
Nu = 0.069Ra1/3 Pr0.074 (19)

Dunkle´s relations for convective and evaporative heat transfer in a humid environment are used
when there exist simultaneously heat and mass transfer [10]:
#1/3
Pw − Pg
"
hc = 0.884 Tw − Tg + Tw (20)
268.9 × 103 − Pw

Pw − Pg
he = 16.276 × 10−3 hc (21)
Tw − Tg
For the internal radiation exchange estimated as [6]:
  
σ Tw 2 + Tg 2 Tw + Tg
hr = 1 1
(22)
εw + εg −1

Recent research by the Mexican working group further discuss these findings [11].
Finally, the distillate production of the still is calculated as:

m00 = qe /hfg (23)

These equations make evident the relevance of the convective mode in the heat and mass transfer
that occurs in the evaporation–condensation process. This fact has been demonstrated by the authors of
the present paper by experimental work. In this sense, the heat transfer coefficients for the convective
and evaporative modes are shown in Figure 3. These results were made in a large cross-section solar
still [12] and show the importance of the energy transport by the humid air, particularly at high
temperatures. Conversely, heat transported by convection shows low values for the useful operating
conditions of the still.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  5  of  17 

 
Figure 3. Relevance of the evaporative mode of heat transfer in solar distillation. 
Figure 3. Relevance of the evaporative mode of heat transfer in solar distillation.
Various models to predict the mass flow rate can be found in the literature. However, there are 
discrepancies  in  predictions,  as  shown  in  Figure  4.  Our  model  predicts  higher  rates  of  distillate, 
meanwhile  models  based  on  Cooper’s  equations  estimate  lower  rates,  and  Clark’s  model 
underpredicts  significantly  the  production  due  to  a  heat  transfer  coefficient  defined  as  half  of  the 
others. 
  
 
Figure 3. Relevance of the evaporative mode of heat transfer in solar distillation. 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 5 of 17
Figure 3. Relevance of the evaporative mode of heat transfer in solar distillation. 

Various models to predict the mass flow rate can be found in the literature. However, there are 
Various models to predict the mass flow rate can be found in the literature. However, there are 
Various models to predict
discrepancies  in  predictions,  as the massin 
shown  flow rate4. 
Figure  can bemodel 
Our  found predicts 
in the literature. However,
higher  rates  there
of  distillate, 
discrepancies 
are in  predictions, 
discrepancies in as  shown 
predictions, as shownin  in
Figure 
Figure4. 4.
Our 
Our model 
model predicts 
predicts higher 
higher rates 
rates of 
of distillate, 
distillate,
meanwhile  models  based  on  Cooper’s  equations  estimate  lower  rates,  and  Clark’s  model 
meanwhile  models 
meanwhile models based 
based on  Cooper’s 
on the 
Cooper’s equations 
equations estimate  lower  rates,  and 
modelClark’s  model 
underpredicts  significantly  production  due estimate lower
to  a  heat  rates,
transfer  and Clark’s
coefficient  defined  underpredicts
as  half  of  the 
underpredicts  significantly  the  production  due  to  a  heat  transfer  coefficient  defined 
significantly the production due to a heat transfer coefficient defined as half of the others. as  half  of  the 
others. 
others. 

 
 
Figure  4.  Distillate  yield  production  for  different  mathematical  models  (Reprinted  from  [13],  with 
Figure 
Figure 4. 
4. Distillate 
Distillate yield 
yield production 
production for 
for different 
different mathematical 
mathematical models 
models (Reprinted 
(Reprinted from 
from [13], 
[13], with 
with
permission from Elsevier, 2019). 
permission from Elsevier, 2019). 
permission from Elsevier, 2019).

There is a linear dependence of the production of the still on water temperature and water‐to‐
There is a linear dependence of the production of the still on water temperature and water-to-cover
There is a linear dependence of the production of the still on water temperature and water‐to‐
cover temperature differences as shown in Figure 5. This plot was obtained from experimental data 
temperature differences as shown in Figure 5. This plot was obtained from experimental data for a
cover temperature differences as shown in Figure 5. This plot was obtained from experimental data 
for a laboratory still operated under controlled conditions. 
laboratory still operated under controlled conditions.
for a laboratory still operated under controlled conditions. 

 
 
Figure 5. Temperature dependence of distillate yield on water and condensing cover temperatures
(Reprinted from [13], with permission from Elsevier, 2019).

3. Single-Effect Double-Slope Condenser Solar Still

The most widely accepted model that describes the heat and mass transfer mechanisms in solar
stills is found in Dunkle´s work [10]. This model was described in the previous section, and one of the
considerations made is that the condenser is a single inclined plate, although the author sketches a
so-called roof type solar still with an inverted-V cover condenser. Therefore, derived equations do
not allow us to know the details of the performance of each plate of the condenser, since they have a
different orientation.
This inverted-V geometry, that implies a condensing cover built with two inclined plates with
different orientations, and therefore temperature differences, has been the subject of interest of various
authors. However, a detailed analysis of its performance can not be found in the literature. The
a so‐called roof type solar still with an inverted‐V cover condenser. Therefore, derived equations do 
not allow us to know the details of the performance of each plate of the condenser, since they have a 
different orientation. 
This inverted‐V geometry, that implies a condensing cover built with two inclined plates with 
different  orientations, 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 and  therefore  temperature  differences,  has  been  the  subject  of  interest 
6 ofof 
17
various authors. However, a detailed analysis of its performance can not be found in the literature. 
The authors of the present paper have developed modeling and experimental work on the subject, to 
authors of the present paper have developed modeling and experimental work on the subject, to help
help  understand  the  physics  of  the  distillation  phenomena  in  solar  stills  that  use  this  particular 
understand the physics of the distillation phenomena in solar stills that use this particular geometry.
geometry. 
Figure 6 shows a sketch of a single-effect double-slope condenser solar still. Dunkle´s model
Figure  6  shows  a  sketch  of  a  single‐effect  double‐slope  condenser  solar  still.  Dunkle´s  model 
needs to be modified to be able to calculate the temperatures and distillate yield of each of the
needs  to  be  modified  to  be  able  to  calculate  the  temperatures  and  distillate  yield  of  each  of  the 
condensing plates.
condensing plates. 

 
Figure 6. Sketch of a single‐effect double‐slope condenser solar still. 
Figure 6. Sketch of a single-effect double-slope condenser solar still.

The same lumped parameter analysis applies, but energy balance equations are modified since 
The same lumped parameter analysis applies, but energy balance equations are modified since
the condensing cover is treated as composed of two independent elements for analysis purposes. This 
the condensing cover is treated as composed of two independent elements for analysis purposes. This
assumption  gives rise
assumption gives rise 
to to  a  system 
a system of equations:
of four four  equations: 
BottomBottom 
absorber,absorber,  water 
water mass, andmass,  and  two 
two condensing
condensing plates. Bottom absorber equation remains the same, but water exchanges energy with 
plates. Bottom absorber equation remains the same, but water exchanges energy with two condensers
two condensers (g1 and g2) and with the absorber bottom: 
(g1 and g2) and with the absorber bottom:
dT
C dTww = HH w+U
Cww
U wb((TTb −TTw)) − U  Tg1 )  U wg 2 (Tw  Tg 2 )  
U wg1((TTw − (24) 
dt w wb b w wg1 w Tg1 ) − Uwg2 (Tw − Tg2 ) (24)
dt
A condensing plate (g1) exchanges energy with the other condenser, seawater and environment: 
A condensing plate (g1) exchanges energy with the other condenser, seawater and environment:
dTg1
C g1
dTg1  H g1  U wg1 (Tw  Tg1 )  U g1g 2 (Tg1  Tg 2 )  U g1e (Tg1  Te )   (25) 
Cg1 dt = Hg1 + Uwg1 (Tw − Tg1 ) − Ug1g2 (Tg1 − Tg2 ) − Ugle (Tg1 − Te )
dt
(25)

The equation for the second condensing plate (g2) is similar: 
The equation for the second condensing plate (g2) is similar:
dTg 2
CCgg22 dTg2 H
= g2+
Hg2 U
Uwg2 Tww − TTg2
wg 2 ((T U
g 2 )) − U g 2 g1((TTg2
g2−TTg1)) −U g 2 e((TT
Ug2e g 2−TT
g2 ee)
)  (26) 
(26)
dt g2g1 g1
dt
A Dunkle´s modified model was implemented with these equations and it is possible to know 
A Dunkle´s modified model was implemented with these equations and it is possible to know the
the  temperatures  and  distillate 
temperatures and distillate yield yield  of condensing
of each each  condensing  plate. 
plate. The The of
details details  of  this 
this new model new 
aremodel  are 
presented
presented in [14]. Recent studies report the replication of this approach [15]. 
in [14]. Recent studies report the replication of this approach [15].
An engineering tool was implemented from this methodology to obtain the solar still simulator
shown in Figure 7. Input parameters can be fed for basin, water, and condensing plates. Solar radiation
and orientation of the still can be set, and the user can define wind and environment temperature files.
The software reports plots for condensers, water and basin temperatures, and each condenser plate
distillate yield.
In this solar still the humid air is confined in a triangular cavity. To gain a better understanding
of its operation, numerical simulations have been carried out in this geometry. The two plates of the
condensing cover have opposite orientation, and so temperature asymmetries arise that depend on
the sun position. It is possible to have a differentially heated cavity, heated from below, where the
temperature of one side wall is higher than the other. Under these conditions a single cell fluid flow is
established as shown in Figure 8. When the cavity is heated from below, but the walls are subject to the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  7  of  17 

J. Mar.An engineering tool was implemented from this methodology to obtain the solar still simulator 
Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 7 of 17
shown  in  Figure  7.  Input  parameters  can  be  fed  for  basin,  water,  and  condensing  plates.  Solar 
radiation  and  orientation  of  the  still  can  be  set,  and  the  user  can  define  wind  and  environment 
same temperature, a flow with two convective cells is obtained. Laboratory experiments demonstrate
temperature files. The software reports plots for condensers, water and basin temperatures, and each 
this fluid flow structure as shown in Figure 9.
condenser plate distillate yield. 

 
Figure 7. Computer simulator of the thermal performance of a double‐slope condensing cover solar 
still. 

In this solar still the humid air is confined in a triangular cavity. To gain a better understanding 
of its operation, numerical simulations have been carried out in this geometry. The two plates of the 
condensing cover have opposite orientation, and so temperature asymmetries arise that depend on 
the sun position. It is possible to have a differentially heated cavity, heated from below, where the 
temperature of one side wall is higher than the other. Under these conditions a single cell fluid flow 
is established as shown in Figure 8. When the cavity is heated from below, but the walls are subject 
 
to  the  same  temperature,  a  flow  with  two  convective  cells  is  obtained.  Laboratory  experiments 
Figure 7. Computer simulator of the thermal performance of a double‐slope condensing cover solar 
Figure 7. Computer simulator of the thermal performance of a double-slope condensing cover solar still.
demonstrate this fluid flow structure as shown in Figure 9. 
still. 

In this solar still the humid air is confined in a triangular cavity. To gain a better understanding 
of its operation, numerical simulations have been carried out in this geometry. The two plates of the 
condensing cover have opposite orientation, and so temperature asymmetries arise that depend on 
the sun position. It is possible to have a differentially heated cavity, heated from below, where the 
temperature of one side wall is higher than the other. Under these conditions a single cell fluid flow 
is established as shown in Figure 8. When the cavity is heated from below, but the walls are subject 
to  the  same  temperature,  a  flow  with  two  convective  cells  is  obtained.  Laboratory  experiments 
demonstrate this fluid flow structure as shown in Figure 9. 

Figure 8. Isotherms (a) and fluid flow (c) in a cavity of triangular cross section heated from below
with side walls at different temperatures, and isotherms (b) and fluid flow (d) for side walls at the
same temperature.

In these figures a laser sheet generator was used to illuminate a section of the cavity. The two-cell
flow structure, characteristic of a system heated from below with walls at the same temperatures,
can be observed.
According to the temperature of the condensing plates, other authors have found that convection
flows in triangular cavities are driven by a single-cell flow pattern [16]. For low turbulence flows, 
 same temperature. 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  8  of  17 

In these figures a laser sheet generator was used to illuminate a section of the cavity. The two‐
Figure 8. Isotherms (a) and fluid flow (c) in a cavity of triangular cross section heated from below 
cell flow structure, characteristic of a system heated from below with walls at the same temperatures, 
with side walls at different temperatures, and isotherms (b) and fluid flow (d) for side walls at the 
Mar. same temperature. 
J.can be observed. 
Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 8 of 17

In these figures a laser sheet generator was used to illuminate a section of the cavity. The two‐
this could be beneficial for the mass transfer process, as reports indicate that the peripheral layers of
cell flow structure, characteristic of a system heated from below with walls at the same temperatures, 
these flow structures have a major participation in the process of heat and mass transfer [17].
can be observed. 

 
Figure 9. Visualization experiments of the convection flows in a cavity similar to those used in solar 
distillation. Natural convection begins (a) and steady‐state convection (b). 

According to the temperature of the condensing plates, other authors have found that convection  
flows in triangular cavities are driven by a single‐cell flow pattern [16]. For low turbulence flows, this 
Figure 9. Visualization experiments of the convection flows in a cavity similar to those used in solar 
Figure 9. Visualization experiments of the convection flows in a cavity similar to those used in solar
distillation. Natural convection begins (a) and steady‐state convection (b). 
could be beneficial for the mass transfer process, as reports indicate that the peripheral layers of these 
distillation. Natural convection begins (a) and steady-state convection (b).
flow structures have a major participation in the process of heat and mass transfer [17]. 
According to the temperature of the condensing plates, other authors have found that convection 
Numerical simulations demonstrate that under certain operating conditions, the temperature of
Numerical simulations demonstrate that under certain operating conditions, the temperature of 
flows in triangular cavities are driven by a single‐cell flow pattern [16]. For low turbulence flows, this 
one condenser is always higher than the other, forcing the system to establish a flow characterized by a
one condenser is always higher than the other, forcing the system to establish a flow characterized 
could be beneficial for the mass transfer process, as reports indicate that the peripheral layers of these 
single convection cell [18].
by a single convection cell [18]. 
flow structures have a major participation in the process of heat and mass transfer [17]. 
Experimental works carried out in a double slope condenser solar still, where the temperature of
Experimental works carried out in a double slope condenser solar still, where the temperature 
each Numerical simulations demonstrate that under certain operating conditions, the temperature of 
condensing plate was measured, show evident temperature differences as shown in Figure 10.
of each condensing plate was measured, show evident temperature differences as shown in Figure 
one condenser is always higher than the other, forcing the system to establish a flow characterized 
The temperature trend observed in this figure is explained by the fact that when the plates are facing
10. The temperature trend observed in this figure is explained by the fact that when the plates are 
by a single convection cell [18]. 
an east-west
facing  direction,
an  east‐west  the east facing
direction,  condensing
the  east  plate gets aplate 
facing  condensing  higher temperature
gets  during sunrise,
a  higher  temperature  and
during 
the Experimental works carried out in a double slope condenser solar still, where the temperature 
temperature trends are inverted after noon [19].
sunrise, and the temperature trends are inverted after noon [19]. 
of each condensing plate was measured, show evident temperature differences as shown in Figure 
10. The temperature trend observed in this figure is explained by the fact that when the plates are 
facing  an  east‐west  direction,  the  east  facing  condensing  plate  gets  a  higher  temperature  during 
sunrise, and the temperature trends are inverted after noon [19]. 

 
Figure 10. Experimental temperatures measured at each component of a double-slope condenser solar
Figure 10. Experimental temperatures measured at each component of a double‐slope condenser solar 
still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019).
still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019). 

The case of the condensing plates facing an east–west direction, shows the  major production
differences as can be observed in Figure 11. East cover distillate yield drops to zero during sunrise
Figure 10. Experimental temperatures measured at each component of a double‐slope condenser solar 
because its temperature gets hotter than brine temperature due to its direct exposure to sun radiation.
still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019). 
The distillate production asymmetries in this figure justify the development of the extended model
described in this section of the paper.
 The 
The case 
case of 
of the 
the condensing 
condensing plates facing 
plates facing an 
an east–west 
east–west direction, shows 
direction, shows the 
the major 
major production 
production 
differences as can be observed in Figure 11. East cover distillate yield drops to zero during sunrise 
differences as can be observed in Figure 11. East cover distillate yield drops to zero during sunrise 
because its temperature gets hotter than brine temperature due to its direct exposure to sun radiation. 
because its temperature gets hotter than brine temperature due to its direct exposure to sun radiation. 
The distillate production asymmetries in this figure justify the development of the extended model 
J.The distillate production asymmetries in this figure justify the development of the extended model 
Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 9 of 17
described in this section of the paper. 
described in this section of the paper. 

  
Figure
Figure 11.
Figure  11.  Distillate
11. Distillate  production
Distillate production  with
production with  condensers
with condensers  facing
condensers facing  an
an east–west
facing an  east–west direction
east–west  direction in
direction  in aa a double-slope
in  double‐slope 
double‐slope 
condenser solar still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019).
condenser solar still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019). 
condenser solar still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019). 

For the case when the condensing plates are facing a north-south direction there are conditions
For the case when the condensing plates are facing a north‐south direction there are conditions 
For the case when the condensing plates are facing a north‐south direction there are conditions 
of quasi-symmetric exposure to sun rays, for which the same production trend is obtained for both
of quasi‐symmetric exposure to sun rays, for which the same production trend is obtained for both 
of quasi‐symmetric exposure to sun rays, for which the same production trend is obtained for both 
condensing plates, as shown in Figure 12.
condensing plates, as shown in Figure 12. 
condensing plates, as shown in Figure 12. 

  
Figure
Figure 12.
Figure  12.  Distillate
12. Distillate  production
Distillate production  with
with condensers
production with  condensers facing
condensers  facing aa a north-south
facing  north‐south direction
north‐south  direction in
direction  in aa a double-slope
in  double‐slope 
double‐slope 
condenser solar still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019).
condenser solar still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019). 
condenser solar still (Reprinted from [19], with permission from Elsevier, 2019). 

4. Field Experiences in Seawater Solar Distillation

4. Field Experiences in Seawater Solar Distillation 
4. Field Experiences in Seawater Solar Distillation 
Freshwater scarcity is a big issue in coastal and isolated communities of Baja California Sur in
Freshwater scarcity is a big issue in coastal and isolated communities of Baja California Sur in 
Freshwater scarcity is a big issue in coastal and isolated communities of Baja California Sur in 
Mexico. This fact and the abundance of seawater in this region is the main motivation to undertake
Mexico. This fact and the abundance of seawater in this region is the main motivation to undertake 
Mexico. This fact and the abundance of seawater in this region is the main motivation to undertake 
research on low-maintenance water desalination plants. Single-effect solar stills are a practical solution
to this problem.
Research efforts have led the Mexican working group to the design of solar stills of different
sizes and geometries. Figure 13 shows a long channel shallow solar still. It is characterized by a
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  10  of  17 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 10 of 17
research  on  low‐maintenance  water  desalination  plants.  Single‐effect  solar  stills  are  a  practical 
solution to this problem. 
short distanceResearch efforts have led the Mexican working group to the design of solar stills of different 
between the evaporating water and the condenser glass, a wood frame structure with
sizes and geometries. Figure 13 shows a long channel shallow solar still. It is characterized by a short 
polystyrene thermal insulation,
distance  between  3.2 mm-thick
the  evaporating  tempered
water  and  glassglass, 
the  condenser  condenser,
a  wood and
frame  a structure 
black plastic
with  painting
solar collector. Mean distance from the glass condenser to the water surface is 7.2 cm, and the cover
polystyrene thermal insulation, 3.2 mm‐thick tempered glass condenser, and a black plastic painting 
of 4◦ . Dimensions are 0.85 m wide and 9.63 m long, with an effective distillation area
solar collector. Mean distance from the glass condenser to the water surface is 7.2 cm, and the cover 
has an inclination
has an inclination of 4°. Dimensions are 0.85 m wide and 9.63 m long, with an effective distillation 
of 8.18 m2 . Water depth is 20 mm, for which it contains 165 L of brain. The still had a daily production
area of 8.18 m2. Water depth is 20 mm, for which it contains 165 liters of brain. The still had a daily 
of 40 L of distilled water.
production of 40 liters of distilled water. 

 
Figure 13. Long channel shallow solar still. 
Figure 13. Long channel shallow solar still.
The experimental field solar still apparatus shown in Figure 14 was also built. This is a large 
The experimental field solar solar 
cross  section  double‐slope  still apparatus shown
still.  The  still  is  3.86  in Figure
m  long,  14m was
2.64  also
wide  and built. This
1.42  m  is aA large cross
height. 
galvanized iron frame supports the glass condensers of 5 mm thick and the basin is a wooden box 
section double-slope solar still. The still is 3.86 m long, 2.64 m wide and 1.42 m height. A galvanized
with low density polystyrene to minimize heat losses. Condensers are tilted 45° and the solar collector 
iron frame supports the glass condensers of 5 mm thick and the basin is a wooden box with low density
is a composite material made from aluminum foil, cotton fabric and black silicon. The implemented 
polystyrene to minimize heat losses. Condensers are tilted 45◦ and the solar collector is a composite
solar collector is a rigid, impermeable and sun radiation absorber. The base has a rolling system that 
material made from aluminum foil, cotton fabric and 2black
provides rotation of 360°, and a production of 3 l/m silicon. The implemented solar collector is
 was obtained. The still was instrumented for 
measuring  wind 
a rigid, impermeable andspeed  and  direction, 
sun radiation solar  radiation, 
absorber. The base ambient 
has atemperature,  distillate 
rolling system thatyield  and  rotation
provides
◦ temperatures with thermocouple sensors. 
2
of 360 , and a production of 3 l/m was obtained. The still was instrumented for measuring wind
speed and direction, solar radiation, ambient temperature, distillate yield and temperatures with
thermocouple sensors.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  11  of  17 

 
Figure 14. Orientation‐adjustable large cross‐section solar still for outdoor experimentation. 
Figure 14. Orientation-adjustable large cross-section solar still for outdoor experimentation.
A distinguishing characteristic of a large‐dimension solar stills is its large thermal inertia. Figure 
A distinguishing characteristic of a large-dimension solar stills is its large thermal inertia. Figure 15
15 shows the plot of the distillate yield for this still. As can be noted, the main production is obtained 
shows the plot of the distillate yield for this still. As can be noted, the main production is obtained
after noon and during night‐time hours. 
after noon and during night-time hours.
  
Figure 14. Orientation‐adjustable large cross‐section solar still for outdoor experimentation. 

A distinguishing characteristic of a large‐dimension solar stills is its large thermal inertia. Figure 
J.15 shows the plot of the distillate yield for this still. As can be noted, the main production is obtained 
Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 11 of 17
after noon and during night‐time hours. 

 
Figure 15. Thermal inertia characteristic of large solar stills. 
Figure 15. Thermal inertia characteristic of large solar stills.

Another
Another type type of of solar still is shown
solar still is  shown in Figure 16.
in Figure  16. It was assembled
It was  assembled withwith 3131 basin
basin modules
modules of  of
ferrocement, made of a steel wire mesh and cement mortar. Dimensions of each module were 1.6 m
ferrocement, made of a steel wire mesh and cement mortar. Dimensions of each module were 1.6 m 
wide and 1.25 m long, with concrete seamed joints such that each module is a brine container to avoid
wide and 1.25 m long, with concrete seamed joints such that each module is a brine container to avoid 
leakage
leakage and and dryness
dryness of of the
the basin
basin due
due to
to the
the inclination
inclination ofof the
the long
long distillation
distillation channel.
channel. The
The glass
glass 
condensers were installed with an inclination of 30 ◦ , and the effective distillation area was m2 .54 
condensers were  installed  with an inclination  of 30°, and  the  effective  distillation  area 54was  Total
m2. 
length of the distillation channel was 38.75 m and on a summer day it produced
Total length of the distillation channel was 38.75 m and on a summer day it produced 200 liters of  200 L of distilled
water, or 3.7 l/m2 . Seawater
distilled water, or 3.7 l/m was fed with a mechanical wind water pump from a well on the beach to
2. Seawater was fed with a mechanical wind water pump from a well on the 

an elevated water storage tank, that fed the still channels by gravity.
beach to an elevated water storage tank, that fed the still channels by gravity. 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  12  of  17 

 
Figure 16. Double slope solar still with ferrocement basin. 
Figure 16. Double slope solar still with ferrocement basin.

Another large cross-section solar still with dimensions 4.4 m wide, 9.4 m long and 2.5 m height is
Another large cross‐section solar still with dimensions 4.4 m wide, 9.4 m long and 2.5 m height 
shown in Figure 17. The condenser structure is a wooden frame with 52 glass plates 1.77 m long and
is shown in Figure 17. The condenser structure is a wooden frame with 52 glass plates 1.77 m long 
0.77 m wide, 6 mm thick, and inclined 45◦ . The basin was made of ordinary concrete covered with
and 0.77 m wide, 6 mm thick, and inclined 45°. The basin was made of ordinary concrete covered 
a solar collector membrane made of silicon, aluminum foil and black cotton fabric. Galvanized iron
with a solar collector membrane made of silicon, aluminum foil and black cotton fabric. Galvanized 
channels with a slope of 1% were installed at the middle and bottom of each condensing side to collect
iron channels with a slope of 1% were installed at the middle and bottom of each condensing side to 
the distillate. Daily production obtained with this still was 3.5 L/m2 . The
collect the distillate. Daily production obtained with this still was 3.5 L/m still was installed on the
2. The still was installed on 

highest part of an island called El Pardito, to the south of the island of San José in Baja California Sur.
the highest part of an island called El Pardito, to the south of the island of San José in Baja California 
Sur. On this island live a small community of fishermen. The transportation of the materials and a 
portable concrete cement mixer on a panga—a small fishing boat—was one of the major difficulties 
faced. 
is shown in Figure 17. The condenser structure is a wooden frame with 52 glass plates 1.77 m long 
and 0.77 m wide, 6 mm thick, and inclined 45°. The basin was made of ordinary concrete covered 
with a solar collector membrane made of silicon, aluminum foil and black cotton fabric. Galvanized 
iron channels with a slope of 1% were installed at the middle and bottom of each condensing side to 
collect the distillate. Daily production obtained with this still was 3.5 L/m
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94
2. The still was installed on 
12 of 17
the highest part of an island called El Pardito, to the south of the island of San José in Baja California 
Sur. On this island live a small community of fishermen. The transportation of the materials and a 
On this island live a small community of fishermen. The transportation of the materials and a portable
portable concrete cement mixer on a panga—a small fishing boat—was one of the major difficulties 
concrete
faced.  cement mixer on a panga—a small fishing boat—was one of the major difficulties faced.

 
Figure  17. 
Figure 17. Large 
Largecross‐section 
cross-sectionsolar 
solarstill  with 
still wood‐supported 
with wood-supportedglass  condensers 
glass and  concrete 
condensers base 
and concrete
materials. 
base materials.

Finally,
Finally, aa ferrocement
ferrocement  basin long
basin  channel
long  solar
channel  still still 
solar  is shown in Figure
is  shown  18. The18. 
in  Figure  desalination system
The  desalination 
was installed
system  in a coastal
was  installed  in fishermen communitycommunity 
a  coastal  fishermen  of 100 inhabitants
of  100 in Puerto Chale,
inhabitants  Baja California
in  Puerto  Sur.
Chale,  Baja 
It consisted of six long distillation channels, each 1.6 m wide and 40 m long. Seawater was pumped
California Sur. It consisted of six long distillation channels, each 1.6 m wide and 40 m long. Seawater 
from a beach well
was  pumped  from  with an aerogenerator
a  beach  andaerogenerator 
well  with  an  a solar electricand water pump.electric 
a  solar  Daily production
water  pump.  of 1000 L
Daily 
was expected, enough to address the more urgent freshwater needs of the people.
production of 1000 liters was expected, enough to address the more urgent freshwater needs of the 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  13  of  17 
people. 

 
Figure 18. Solar desalination plant in Puerto Chale, Baja California Sur, Mexico. 
Figure 18. Solar desalination plant in Puerto Chale, Baja California Sur, Mexico.
5. Mass Production Manufacturing of Solar Stills with Technology Innovations 
5. Mass Production Manufacturing of Solar Stills with Technology Innovations
Single‐effect solar stills found in the market are relatively unattractive due to the lack of a mass 
Single-effect
production  solar stills found
manufacturing  in the market
processes  aredistillation 
of  efficient  relatively unattractive
apparatus.  Most  due tosolar 
of  the  the lack
stills  of a mass
productionreported  in  the  literature 
manufacturing processes are of
hand‐crafted.  Efficient  distillation 
efficient distillation apparatus. prototypes 
Most ofrequire  various 
the solar stills reported
components, like walls with thermal insulation, a solar collector plate or membrane, a rigid structure, 
in the literature are hand-crafted. Efficient distillation prototypes require various components, like
a  glass  or  plastic  condenser,  and  no  less  important,  environmentally  friendly  materials.  This  fact 
walls withmakes 
thermal insulation,
it  difficult  a solar
to  find  collector
an  adequate  and plate or membrane,
practical  manufacturing a process. 
rigid structure,
However,  avarious 
glass or plastic
condenser,manufacturing methodologies and materials can be found in the literature. A recent paper reviews 
and no less important, environmentally friendly materials. This fact makes it difficult to find
the  use  of  plastics and  recycled  materials [20]. Some stills are  made  of  polyethylene  terephthalate 
(PET) bottles for the basin and the condensing surface [21]. The thermoforming process has also been 
applied in the design of solar stills, where heat and a mold are used to give shape to a black high‐
density sheet of polyethylene. Walls are thin, so it is not possible to embed thermal insulation [22]. 
The  use  of  the  industrial  rotational  molding  process  in  the  manufacturing  of  solar  stills  may 
overcome these limitations. This process permits the mass production of solar stills, and the inclusion 
of  technology  innovations  in  the  manufactured  parts.  Some  innovations  are  the  possibility  of 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 13 of 17

an adequate and practical manufacturing process. However, various manufacturing methodologies

and materials can be found in the literature. A recent paper reviews the use of plastics and recycled
materials [20]. Some stills are made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles for the basin and the
condensing surface [21]. The thermoforming process has also been applied in the design of solar stills,
where heat and a mold are used to give shape to a black high-density sheet of polyethylene. Walls are
thin, so it is not possible to embed thermal insulation [22].
The use of the industrial rotational molding process in the manufacturing of solar stills may
overcome these limitations. This process permits the mass production of solar stills, and the inclusion of
technology innovations in the manufactured parts. Some innovations are the possibility of embedding
thermal insulation in the structure of the still, a single-piece or monolithic still, integrated distillate
collector channel and distillate yield container, black polyethylene that avoids the use of an additional
solar collector plate, environmentally friendly materials, and the possibility of using a glass or film
polyethylene condenser.
The rotational molding process is shown in Figure 19. This is a 4-step process in which a hollow
mold is filled with polyethylene powder, closed and moved to an oven; the mold is heated in the
oven for melting the polymer, adhering it to the wall, and rotated biaxially for an even dispersal and
consistent product wall thickness; then, the mold is cooled with water or air; and finally, the part is
removed from the mold for inspection, assembly or packaging operations.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  14  of  17 

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  14  of  17 

 
Figure Figure 19. Rotational molding process for manufacturing of innovative solar stills. 
19. Rotational molding process for manufacturing of innovative solar stills.
 
Figure 19. Rotational molding process for manufacturing of innovative solar stills. 
Under this process, a solar still composed of two pieces can be produced, as shown in Figure 20. 
UnderThe main structure is a one‐piece part, made of black rigid polyethylene, so it is water‐leak resistant 
this process, a solar still composed of two pieces can be produced, as shown in Figure 20.
Under this process, a solar still composed of two pieces can be produced, as shown in Figure 20. 
The main structure is a one-piece part, made of black rigid polyethylene, so it is water-leak resistant
and serves as the solar collector. Therefore, it does not need a separate solar collector plate or material. 
and servesThe main structure is a one‐piece part, made of black rigid polyethylene, so it is water‐leak resistant 
as the solar collector. Therefore, it does not need a separate solar collector plate or material.
and serves as the solar collector. Therefore, it does not need a separate solar collector plate or material. 

 
Figure 20. Two‐piece innovative polyethylene solar still. 
 
FigureFigure 20. Two‐piece innovative polyethylene solar still. 
20. Two-piece innovative polyethylene solar still.
This process produces a hollow part, for which it is straightforward to undertake an injection 
process to fill the interior of the structure with polyurethane foam as thermal insulation, as shown in 
This process produces a hollow part, for which it is straightforward to undertake an injection 
Figure 21, in order to avoid major energy loses.   
process to fill the interior of the structure with polyurethane foam as thermal insulation, as shown in 
Figure 21, in order to avoid major energy loses.   
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 14 of 17

This process produces a hollow part, for which it is straightforward to undertake an injection
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  15  of  17 
process to fill the interior of the structure with polyurethane foam as thermal insulation, as shown in
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW  15  of  17 
Figure 21, in order to avoid major energy loses.

 
Figure 21. Hollow still to embed thermal insulation.   
Figure 21. Hollow still to embed thermal insulation. 
Figure 21. Hollow still to embed thermal insulation.
Concerning other innovations of this product, under this process the mold can be fabricated so 
that the distillate yield container is also integral part of the still as shown in Figure 22. The distillate 
Concerning other innovations of this product, under this process the mold can be fabricated so
Concerning other innovations of this product, under this process the mold can be fabricated so 
runs over the inner surface of the glass condenser and is deposited directly in the water container 
that the distillate yield container is also integral part of the still as shown in Figure 22. The distillate
that the distillate yield container is also integral part of the still as shown in Figure 22. The distillate 
tank. The rotomolding manufacturing process is very flexible. Instead of an integral distillate collector 
runs over the inner surface of the glass condenser and is deposited directly in the water container tank.
runs over the inner surface of the glass condenser and is deposited directly in the water container 
tank, a solar still can be designed with the commonly used water collector channel, located at the 
The rotomolding manufacturing process is very flexible. Instead of an integral distillate collector tank,
tank. The rotomolding manufacturing process is very flexible. Instead of an integral distillate collector 
lower part of the condensing plate, to collect the distilled water and transport it to an external water 
a solar still can be designed with the commonly used water collector channel, located at the lower
tank, a solar still can be designed with the commonly used water collector channel, located at the 
bottle through a freshwater drain port. 
part of the condensing plate, to collect the distilled water and transport it to an external water bottle
lower part of the condensing plate, to collect the distilled water and transport it to an external water 
The authors of the present paper did not find reports in the literature on the use of the rotational 
through a freshwater drain port.
bottle through a freshwater drain port. 
molding process in the manufacture of solar stills. 
The authors of the present paper did not find reports in the literature on the use of the rotational 
molding process in the manufacture of solar stills. 

 
Figure 22. Integrated distillate water container (a), and the commonly used distillate yield collector
Figure 22. Integrated distillate water container (a), and the commonly used distillate yield collector   
channel to drain the condensed water to an external container (b).
channel to drain the condensed water to an external container (b). 
Figure 22. Integrated distillate water container (a), and the commonly used distillate yield collector 
The authors of the present paper did not find reports in the literature on the use of the rotational
channel to drain the condensed water to an external container (b). 
6. Conclusions 
molding process in the manufacture of solar stills.
This paper illustrates the vast knowledge that has been accumulated over the years in designing, 
6. Conclusions 
6. Conclusions
building and operating single‐effect passive solar stills in Mexico. Experience has also been built in 
This paper illustrates the vast knowledge that has been accumulated over the years in designing, 
This paper
operating  illustrates thethese 
and  maintaining  vast knowledge that hasmuch 
stills,  to  mitigate  been accumulated over therequirements 
needed  freshwater  years in designing,
in  the 
building and operating single‐effect passive solar stills in Mexico. Experience has also been built in 
building and operating single-effect passive solar stills in Mexico. Experience has also been built in
northern semi‐desert parts of Mexico. The next step will very likely consist in evolving construction 
operating  and  maintaining  these  stills,  to  mitigate  much  needed  freshwater  requirements  in  the 
operating
by  means  and
of maintaining
an  industrial  these stills, tothat 
process  mitigate
can much
take  needed freshwater
advantage  requirements
of  polymeric  in the northern
materials,  possibly 
northern semi‐desert parts of Mexico. The next step will very likely consist in evolving construction 
semi-desert parts of Mexico. The next step will very likely consist in evolving construction
manufactured with recycled plastics. As shown in the previous section, such a design can incorporate  by means
by  means  of  an  industrial  process  that  can  take  advantage  of  polymeric  materials,  possibly 
of an industrial
innovations,  process
such  as  a that canregular 
very  take advantage of polymeric
and  standard  materials,
geometry,  possibly
artificial  manufactured
intelligence  with
for  loading, 
manufactured with recycled plastics. As shown in the previous section, such a design can incorporate 
recycled plastics. As shown in the previous section, such a design can incorporate innovations, such as
operating and maintaining the still, and probably constructing industrial‐sized distilling operations, 
innovations,  such  as  a  very  regular  and  standard  geometry,  artificial  intelligence  for  loading, 
aby simply putting together a large number of solar stills. The experience of the authors indicates that 
very regular and standard geometry, artificial intelligence for loading, operating and maintaining
operating and maintaining the still, and probably constructing industrial‐sized distilling operations, 
the still, and probably constructing industrial-sized distilling operations, by simply putting together
such an effort is in order with current technical capacity and water costs. The present government 
by simply putting together a large number of solar stills. The experience of the authors indicates that 
administration has let it be known that such a project could aim at official and international funding. 
such an effort is in order with current technical capacity and water costs. The present government 
Mexico can thus become an international leader in solar distillation of seawater. 
administration has let it be known that such a project could aim at official and international funding. 
Mexico can thus become an international leader in solar distillation of seawater. 
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 15 of 17

a large number of solar stills. The experience of the authors indicates that such an effort is in order
with current technical capacity and water costs. The present government administration has let it be
known that such a project could aim at official and international funding. Mexico can thus become an
international leader in solar distillation of seawater.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.R., J.L.F.-Z. and M.A.P.-G.; methodology, E.R., J.L.F.-Z. and M.A.P.-G.;
software, E.R.; validation, E.R. and M.A.P.-G.; formal analysis, J.L.F.-Z. and M.A.P.-G.; investigation, E.R., J.L.F.-Z.
and M.A.P.-G.; resources, E.R. and M.A.P.-G.; data curation, E.R.; writing—original draft preparation, E.R.;
writing—review and editing, J.L.F.-Z. and M.A.P.-G.; visualization, E.R. and M.A.P.-G.; supervision, J.L.F.-Z.;
project administration, E.R., J.L.F.-Z. and M.A.P.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Symbols
C Thermal capacity, J m−2 K−1
G Total solar radiation, W m−2
h Heat transfer coefficient, W m−2 K−1
hfg Latent heat of vaporization, J kg−1
H Corresponding fraction of absorbed radiation, W m−2
kext Extinction coefficient, m−1
L Wall thickness, m
m” Mass flow rate, kg m−2 s−1
n Day of year
N Number of daylight hours
Nu Nusselt number, dimensionless
P Partial pressure of water vapor, N m−2
Pr Prandtl number, dimensionless
q Heat flow rate, W m−2
r Reflected portion, dimensionless
Ra Rayleigh number, dimensionless
Rb Ratio of beam radiation for tilted surfaces
t Time, s
T Temperature, K
U Global heat transfer coefficient, W m−2 K−1
v Wind speed, m s−1
Greeks
α Absorptance, dimensionless
β Cover slope, ◦
γ Azimuth, ◦
δ Sun declination, ◦
ε Emittance, dimensionless
φ Latitude, ◦
θ Angle of incidence, ◦
ρ Reflectance, dimensionless
σ Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 5.6697 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4
τ Transmittance, dimensionless
ω Hour angle, ◦
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 94 16 of 17

Subscripts
a Absorption
b Bottom, beam radiation
c Convective
e Environment
g Glass
r Radiative
s Sky
w Water
z Zenithal
|| Parallel component of unpolarized radiation
⊥ Perpendicular component of unpolarized radiation

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