DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Meaning of Descriptive Research

-(Manuel and Medel): Descriptive research describes what is.
-(Aquino): Descriptive research is fact-finding with adequate interpretation.
-(Best): Descriptive research describes and interprets what is.
-(Cited by Sanchez): Descriptive research goes beyond mere gathering and tabulation of
data. It involves the elements or interpretation of the meaning or significance of what is
described. Description is combined with comparison and contrast involving measurements,
classifications, interpretation and evaluation
-Definition: A purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data
about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends, and cause-effect
relationships and then making adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with
or without the aid of statistical method.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case under
study.
2. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of the general
characteristics of the group or case under study.
3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.
4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change or progress
that took place between the periods may be noted or evaluated for any value it gives.
5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to determine
their similarities and differences.
6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not usually controlled.
7. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are generally cross-sectional, that is, it studies
the different sections belonging to the same group.
8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of verification and
comparison.
Value, Importance, and Advantages of Descriptive Research
1. Descriptive research contributes much to the formulation of principles and
generalizations in behavioral sciences. (casual-comparative and correlation studies).
2. Descriptive research contributes much to the establishment of standard norms of
conduct, behavior, or performance.
3. Descriptive research reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that remedial
measures may be instituted.
4. Descriptive research makes possible the prediction of the future on the basis of findings
on prevailing conditions, correlations, and on the basis of reactions of people toward
certain issues.
5. Descriptive research gives a better and deeper understanding of a phenomenon on the
basis of an in-depth study of the phenomenon.
6. Descriptive research provides a basis for decision-making.
7. Descriptive research helps fashion many of the tools with which we do research, such as,
instruments for the measurement of many things, instruments that are employed in all
types of quantitative research. (instruments: schedules, checklists, score cards, and rating
scales).

Techniques Under the Descriptive Method of Research

(1) the survey, (2) the case study, and (3) content analysis

Survey- a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation.

Difference Between Survey and Case Study
Survey
1. The group surveyed is usually large.
2. The number of aspects or variables in
the life of the group surveyed is limited.
3. Cause-effect relationships are not given
emphasis. Aim of a study may only be to
determine status.
4. Representativeness is important and is
given emphasis.
Case Study
1. Case study may involve and usually
involves one person, family, small group, or
small community.
2. Usually all aspects or variables in the life
cycle of the case under study are included.
3. Finding the causes of certain phenomena
is always a part of a case study.
4. Representativeness is not important. The
results of a single case study do not
provide certainty that the case is truly

5. Curiosity, interest or just to determine
norm or status may initiate a survey.
6. Only conditions or practices present
during the survey are considered. (Except
comparative studies [present-past]).
representative.
5. Abnormalities or undesirable traits or
conditions usually initiate a case study.
6. Data about the case from birth or origin
or even of the future are considered.

Advantages of the Survey Approach Over the Case Study Approach

1. Survey reveals what is typical, average, or normal against which the behavior or
performance of an individual can be judged or evaluated.
2. The results of a survey may be used for prediction.
3. Survey makes possible the formulation of generalizations because the sample has a high
degree of representativeness.
4. Survey reveals problems for which timely remedial measures may be instituted.
5. It is easy to get respondents for a survey.
6. The instruments for gathering data are easy to determine, construct, validate, and
administer.
Disadvantages of the Survey Approach or Technique. (Treece and Treece, Jr.)
1. Lack of manipulation over independent variables.
2. One cannot progressively investigate one aspect after another of the independent
variable to get closer to the real cause.
3. Statistical devices are not always able to separate the effects of several independent
variables when there is multivariable causation.

4. Survey approach yields a low degree of control or there is no control at all over
extraneous variables.
5. The instrument for gathering data may lack validity, reliability, or adequacy.

Types of Survey Technique or Approach (Treece and Treece, Jr.)

1. Total population survey- entire population
2. Sample survey- only a sample or portion of population
3. Social survey- researches on the attitudes and behaviors of diff. group of people.
4. School survey- gather data for and about schools and to assess educational achievement
and education itself.
5. Public opinion survey- gauge the reactions of people towards certain issues or person.
6. Poll survey- respondents are asked if they are voting for a certain candidate in an
election.
7. Market survey- find out what kinds of people purchase which products. Allied to
motivation survey: asks why they purchase certain commodities.
8. Evaluation survey- critically evaluates what has been accomplished.
9. Comparative survey- results from two different groups, techniques, or procedures are
compared.
10. Short-term survey- period of data collection < 5 years.
11. Long-term survey- period of data collection > 5 years.
12. Longitudinal survey- almost same as long-term survey. (Questions about past event
and compare responses to the present affairs of things).
13. Cross-sectional survey- several groups in various stages of involvement are studied
simultaneously. Allied to cross-sectional survey: groups of different cultural background
14. Job analysis survey- general duties and responsibilities of workers, education,
training, experiences, salaries, etc.; helps admins in setting up training programs/
recruitment policies.
15. Community survey- provides information on the various aspects of the community.
16. Correlation study- shows the relationship between two or more variables.

Case Study and Case Work

Case study- comprehensive, complete, detailed, and in-depth study and

analysis of an individual, institution, group, or community.
-Young: case study “comprehensive study of a social unit – be that unit a person, a social
institution, a group, a district, or community”.
-Good and Scates: case study as that method which takes account of all pertinent aspects
of one thing or situation, employing as the unit for study.
-Definition: an extensive and intensive investigation of a unit presented, the aim of which
is to identify causal factors to some abnormality or deficiency and to find and recommend a
solution.
Case work- developmental, adjustment, remedial, or corrective procedures that
appropriately follow diagnoses of the causes of maladjustment or of favorable
development.
Case method- describe a plan of organizing and presenting instructional materials in law,
medicine, social work etc, where as a rule, the case materials used are the product of case
study investigation.
Case history- a biography obtained by interview and other means, sometimes collected
over the years to enable us to understand the problems of an individual and to suggest
ways of solving them. “The complete medical, psychological, and social history of a patient.”
Clinical method- Peter- “a process by which we collect all available evidence—social,
psychological, educational, biographical , and medical, that promises to help us understand
an individual child”.

Who Should be Studied?

-Children with some forms of abnormalities are subjects of case studies.
-Social groups, showing some kind of abnormalities or maladjustments may be the subjects
of a case study. (i.e. drug addicts, chain smokers, etc.)

Kinds of Information Needed in Case Studies

(sample of a case history)
1. Identifying data- name, sex, date of birth, age, etc.
2. Identification and statement of the problem- any symptoms of complaints
3. Health and developmental history- details of birth, any abnormality at birth or
congenital deficiency; accidents met and treated; growth and maturation rate, etc.
4. Family history- abnormalities among ancestors. Parents, and siblings; health history of
family; education of family; attitudes of family members, etc.
5. Education history
6. Social history- church membership, attendance, involvement; membership in civic
organizations/ gangs (barkadas), etc.
7. Economic history- economic status; kind of job and size income, etc.
8. Psychological history- personality traits
Data-gathering instruments
1. Interview: long probing interviews may be conducted especially with the patient
himself.
2. Observation: observing the patient’s behavior for an adequate length of time and some
other observable conditions that might have contributed something to the maladjustment
of the patient.
3. Questionnaire: given to the patient and to some people who may be able to contribute
something to the discovery of important data.
4. Psychological tests: mental ability tests and others (i.e. thematic apperception test and
Rorschach test) to discover the psychological causal factors.
5. Anecdotal records: records of significant aspects of the patient’s behavior when he
finds himself in different situations and in his unguarded moments.
6. Autobiographies: rich sources of information about the patient and his problem.
7. Other devices: checklists, score cards, rating scales, letters, notes, diaries.

Characteristics of a satisfactory case study (Maxfield as cited by Good and Scates)

1. Continuity
2. Completeness of data
3. Validity of data
4. Confidential recording
5. Scientific synthesis

Social skills of case work (Strode and Strode as cited by Good and Scates)
1. Social insight
2. Empathy
3. Sociality
4. Communication
5. Cooperation
6. Participation
6. Organization
7. Social Counseling
8. Guidance for creative achievement

The cycle of case study and case work

1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon.
2. Collection of data relating to the factors of circumstances associated with given
phenomenon.
3. Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental
treatment.
4. Application of remedial or adjustment measures
5. Subsequent follow-ups to determine the effectiveness of the corrective or developmental
measures applied.

Content Analysis- research technique that deals with documentary materials

that are already existing and available.
Characteristics of Content Analysis
1. It is objective.
2. It is systematic.
3. It is quantitative.

Steps in Content Analysis (follows the scientific method)

1. Recognizing the problem
2. Forming the hypotheses
3. Doing library search.
4. Designing the study
5. Developing the instrument
6. Collecting the data
7. Analyzing the data
8. Making conclusions
9. Making recommendations
Applications of Content Analysis of Documentary Materials
1. Analyzing to determine the ideas of great authors and thinkers based upon their
writings.
2. Analyzing the contents of textbooks and other instructional materials as a basis for
curriculum construction and development.
3. Analyzing the achievements of students in different subjects to determine the types of of
errors committed.
4. Analyzing the different writings of students to determine their writing/ vocabulary/
spelling aptitude as basis for designing programs for further development.
5. Analyzing school records with the end view of adopting common, practical, economical,
and useful school records.
6. Analyzing the objectives and practices of different schools and school systems.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
-(Good): method or procedure involving the control or manipulation of conditions for the
purpose of studying the relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a
sample, or of the same treatment applied to members of a sample.
-(Manuel and Medel): The basic purpose of experimental research is to discover the
influence of one or more factors upon a condition, group, or situation, purpose of which is
to discover “what will be.”
-Definition: Experimental research is a highly controlled procedure in which manipulated
treatments or actions from a factor or condition (experimental or independent variable),
are applied upon another factor or condition (dependent variable), all other factors are
kept constant.

Concepts on Causation (Estolas and Boquiren)

1. One-to-one Relationship- For every particular cause, there is a corresponding
particular effect. One independent variable causes an effect upon one dependent variable.
2. Two-variable Relationship- This involves two variables causing an effect on one
variable.
3. Complex Relationship- This is a case where two or more variables cause a single effect.
4. One-variable causes two or more effects

General Distinguishing Features of Experiments

1. Experimentation lends itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative entities.
2. Observations are done under controlled conditions.
3. Gathering of valid facts is rigorous.
4. Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom, or in the field.
5. Laboratory experiments are intensive and exacting.
6. Most often experiments are limited to a small number of cases.
7. There is more thorough analysis of variable factors.

Experimental Designs
A. Single Factor Experimental Designs.
1. Single group with only a post-test design. This involves a thing, person, or group
subjected or exposed to a certain experimental factor for a certain period of time. Then,
after the experimental period, the subjects or students exposed to the experimental factors
are given a post test. The achievement of this experimental group is then compared with
the achievement of another group with similar characteristics.
2. Single group with a pre-test and post-test design. In this design, the group is exposed
to a certain experimental factor. However, before the start of the experiment, the group is
given a pre-test about the subject matter to be covered in the experiment. Then after the
experimental period, the group is given the same pre-test but in a different form to avoid
the effect of practice (post-test).
3. Matched groups design. In this design, two groups are matched in age, sex, grade level,
mental ability, etc. One group (experimental group) is exposed to the experimental or
independent variable while the other group (control group) is not exposed to the
experiment variable. These groups are given the same test covering the subject matter
studied during the experimental period.
4. Randomized multigroup with a post-test design. In this design, there are two or more
experimental variables to be tested. So groups are formed equal to the number of
experimental variables. Each experimental factor is applied on the group to which it is
assigned. All other variables are kept equal in all the groups. After the experimental period,
the same test on the lessons taken by all the groups is given to all of them.
5. Randomized multigroup with a pre-test and a post-test design. Same as design in
No. 4 (but with pre-test). Analysis of covariance

B. Two Factor Experiment

1. Factorial design. Is a two factor experiment in which there are two experimental factors
involved.

The Experimental Plan

1. Determining the experimental problem or topic.
2. Surveying related literature and studies.
3. Formulating the hypothesis or hypotheses.
4. Identifying the experimental variables.
5. Select the appropriate experimental design.
6. Selecting the sample.
7. Selecting or constructing appropriate instruments to measure the results of the
experiment.
8. Conducting the experiment.
Extraneous factors that may affect the results of an experiment (Manuel and Medel)
a. History- specific events between the first and second measurement in addition to
the experimental variable.
b. Maturation- biological or psychological processes which operate with the passage
of time, regardless of events.
c. Testing- the effects of taking a test upon the scores of a second test.
d. Biases in the selection of respondents in the comparison groups- An experimental
group may have volunteered for the experiment exhibiting effects not attributable
to the experimental factor (Hawthorne effect).
e. Experimental mortality- loss of respondents from the comparison groups.
f. Interaction effects- which represent effects of the experimental factor and some
other variables such as experimental settings, reactive effect of testing, and prior
treatment interference.
9. Measuring the results and applying statistical procedures.
10. Writing the report of the experiment.

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 1

 Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
The Introduction
Guidelines in writing the introduction:
1. Presentation of the problem
2. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs solution.
3. Rationale of the study
4. Historical background of the problem.
5. A desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation, circumstance, or
phenomenon.
6. A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product.
7. A desire to discover something.
8. Geographical conditions of the study locale.
9. A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem.

Statement of the Problem

General statement of the whole problem followed by the specific questions or
subproblems into which the general problem is broken up.

Assumptions and Hypotheses

- Historical and descriptive investigations do not need explicit hypotheses and
assumptions.
- Experimental studies need explicit hypotheses and assumptions.

Importance or Significance of the Study

Guidance in explaining the importance of the study.
1. The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study.
2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions.
3. Who are to be benefitted and how they are going to be benefitted.
4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.
5. Possible implications.

Definitions of Terms
Guidelines in defining terms:
1. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study are
defined.
2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study.
3. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term
defined.
4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines, newspaper articles,
dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his sources.
Definitions from published materials: Conceptual or theoretical definitions
5. Definitions should be as brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible.
6. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or if
it is used for the first time.

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

Guidelines in writing the scope and delimitations:
1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.
2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.
3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data
belong.
4. The population or universe from which the respondents were selected.
5. The period of the study.

Limitations of the Study

Include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the researcher.

Conceptual Framework
- Theoretical scheme for research problem.
- The central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the study. Serves as a guide in
conducting the investigation.
Paradigm: diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts in a
more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.
 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2
Chapter 2 RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies
A. Characteristics of the Materials Cited
1. The materials must be as recent as possible,
2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study.
4. Materials must not be too few but not too many.

B. Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies

1. By author or writer- In this method, the ideas, facts, or principles, although they have
the same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote with
their respective authors or writers.
2. By topic- If different authors or writers have the same opinion about the same topic, the
topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors or writers.
3. Chronological- Related materials may also be cited chronologically. (Can be done in by
author or writer; if in by topic, chronological citation is done in footnote).

C. What to Cite
-Only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions in related
materials relevant to the problem under investigation should be discussed.
-These are summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.

D. Quoting a Material
A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is
controversial and it is not too long.
Single spaced with wider margins at the left and right sides of the paper but without
any quotation marks.
Justification of the Study
-There is no duplication of other studies. The present inquiry may only be a
replication of another study (same research problem, different locale) for formulation of
generalizations or principles.