Difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs

Basis for Comparison Autotroph Heterotroph

An autotroph is a group of organisms A heterotroph is a group of organisms

capable of producing their own food by that obtain their food from other
Definition
utilizing various substances like water, organisms and are not capable of
sunlight, air, and other chemicals. producing their own food.

The source of energy in autotrophs is Autotrophs are the direct or indirect

Source of energy
either sunlight or chemical reactions. source of energy in heterotrophs.

Autotrophs are independent and can Heterotrophs are directly or indirectly

Dependency
produce their own food. dependent on autotrophs.

Autotrophs form the lowest trophic Heterotrophs form the second or

Trophic level
level in the food chain. third trophic levels in the food chain.

Solar energy can be stored in some Solar energy storage or utilization is

Solar energy
autotrophs. not possible in heterotrophs.

Role Autotrophs act as producers. Heterotrophs act as consumers.

Autotrophs are of two types; Heterotrophs are also of two types;

Types photoautotrophs and phytotoheterotrophs and
chemoautotrophs. chemoheterotrophs.

Autotrophs are mostly plants, algae, Heterotrophs are mostly animals,

Organisms
and some bacteria. fungi, and some bacteria.

Photosynthesis acts as the major

Photosynthesis doesn’t occur in
Photosynthesis metabolic pathway for the production
heterotrophs.
of energy.

Autotrophs use inorganic carbon as the Heterotrophs use organic carbon as a

Carbon source
carbon source. carbon source.

Most heterotrophs do not require a

External energy source
Autotrophs require an external source
separate energy source.
of energy like sunlight or chemical
Photoheterotrophs might use sunlight
reactions.
as a source of energy.

Autotrophs make food at a particular

period of time. Plants make food in the Food is available to heterotrophs
Availability
day while chemoautotrophs depend on almost any time of the day.
the chemical reaction.

Humans, animals, fungi,

Examples Plants, algae, cyanobacteria, etc.
heterotrophic bacteria.
5.1.4   Decribe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three
linkages (four organisms)
A food chain shows the linear feeding relationships between species in a community
The arrows represent the transfer of energy and matter as one organism is eaten by another
(arrows point in the direction of energy flow)
The first organism in the sequence is the producer, followed by consumers (1°, 2°, 3°, etc.)

Eg. Graasland biome

Buffalo grass(Buchloe dactyloides) Two striped grasshopper(Melanoplus bivittatus0Greater
stick nest rat black cat snake
Pond Biome
Green algae Tiger mosquito Flame skimmer dragonfly long legged horn frog
Ocean Biome
Phytopankton zooplankton Sardine Fish Tuna Fish

5.1.5   Describe what is meant by a food web

A food web is a diagram that shows how food chains are linked together into more complex
feeding relationships within a community
There can be more than one producer in a food web, and consumers can occupy multiple positions
(trophic levels) 

5.1.6   Define trophic level  

An organism's trophic level refers to the position it occupies in a food chain
Producers always occupy the first trophic level, while saprotrophs would generally occupy the
ultimate trophic level of a given food chain or food web
The trophic levels in a community are:

5.1.7   Deduce the trophic levels of organisms in a food web and food chain
The trophic level of an organism can be determined by counting the number of feeding
relationships preceding it  and adding one (producer always first) 
Trophic Level = Number of arrows (in sequence) before organism + 1
In food webs, a single organism may occupy multiple trophic levels

5.1.9   State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities
 All green plants, and some bacteria, are photo-autotrophic - they use light as a source of
energy for synthesising organic molecules
 This makes light the initial source of energy for almost all communities 
 Some bacteria are chemo-autotrophic and use energy derived from chemical processes
(e.g. nitrogen-fixating bacteria)

5.1.10   Explain the energy flow in a food chain

 Energy enters most communities as light, where it is absorbed by autotrophs (e.g. plants)
and converted into chemical energy via photosynthesis
 Energy then gets passed to the primary consumer (herbivore) when they eat the plant, and
then gets passed to successive consumers (carnivores) as they are eaten in turn
 Only ~10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next, the rest is lost 
 Because ~90% of energy is lost between trophic levels, the number of trophic levels are
limited as energy flow is reduced at higher levels
5.1.11   State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient
 When energy transformations take place in living organisms the process is never 100%
efficient
 Typically, energy transformations in living things are ~10% efficient, with about 90% of the
energy lost between trophic levels
  This energy may be lost as heat, be used up during cellular respiration, be excreted in
faeces or remain unconsumed  as the uneaten part of food

5.1.12   Explain the reason for the shape of pyramids of energy

 A pyramid of energy is a graphical representation of the amount of energy of each tropic

level in a food chain
 They are expressed in units of energy per area per time (e.g. kJ m2 year -1)
 Pyramids of energy will never appear inverted as some of the energy stored in one source
is always lost when transferred to the next source
 This is an application of the second law of thermodynamics
 Each level of the pyramid of energy should be approximately one tenth the size of the
level preceding it, as energy transformations are ~10% efficient

5.1.13   Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled
 The movement of energy and matter through ecosystems are related because both occur
by the transfer of substances through feeding relationships
 However, energy cannot be recycled and an ecosystem must be powered by a continuous
influx of new energy from an external source (e.g the sun)
 Nutrients refer to material required by an organism, and are constantly being recycled
within an ecosystem as food (either living or dead)
 The autotrophic activities of the producers (e.g. plants) produce organic materials from
inorganic sources, which are then fed on by the consumers
 When heterotrophic organisms die, these inorganic nutrients are returned to the soil to be
reused by the plants (as fertiliser)
 Thus energy flows through ecosystems, while nutrients cycle within them

5.1.14   State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients
 In order for organisms to grow and reproduce, they need a supply of the elements of
which they are made 
 The saprotrophic activity of decomposers (certain bacteria and fungi), free inorganic
materials from the dead bodies and waste products of organisms, ensuring a continual
supply of raw materials for the producers (which can then be ingested by consumers)
 Thus saprotrophic bacteria and fungi play a vital role in recycling nutrients within an
ecosystem 

5.2.1   Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved
There are four main 'pools' of carbon in the environment:
• Atmosphere                        • Biosphere                        • Sediments                        • Ocean

There are a number of processes by which carbon can be cycled between these pools:
 Photosynthesis:  Atmospheric carbon dioxide is removed and fixed as organic compounds
(e.g. sugars)
 Feeding:  In which organic carbon is moved from one trophic level to the next in a food
chain
 Respiration:  All organisms (including plants) metabolise organic compounds for energy,
releasing carbon dioxide as a by-product
 Fossilization:  In which carbon from partially decomposed dead organisms becomes
trapped in sediment as coal, oil and gas (fossil fuels) 
 Combustion:  During the burning of fossil fuels and biomass
  In oceans, carbon can be reversibly trapped and stored as limestone (storage happens
more readily at low temperatures)

The Carbon Cycle

5.2.2   Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records
Recent Trends:
 Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have been measured at the Mauna Loa
atmospheric observatory in Hawaii from 1958 and has since been measured at a number
of different locations globally
 The data shows that there is an annual cycle in CO2 concentrations which may be
attributable to seasonal factors, but when data from the two hemispheres is incorporated,
it suggests that atmospheric CO2 levels have risen steadily in the past 30 years

Long Term Estimates:

 Carbon dioxide concentration changes over a long period of time have been determined
by a variety of sources, including analysing the gases trapped in ice (and thus providing a
historical snapshot of atmospheric concentrations)
 Data taken from the Vostok ice core in Antarctica shows that fluctuating cycles of
CO2 concentrations over thousands of years appear to correlate with global warm ages and
ice ages
 It is compelling to note that CO2 levels appear to be currently higher than at any time in
the last 400,000 years

5.2.3   Explain the relationship between the rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide,
methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural process whereby the earth's atmosphere behaves like a
greenhouse to create the moderate temperatures to which life on earth has adapted (without the
greenhouse effect, temperatures would drop significantly every night)
 The incoming radiation from the sun is short-wave ultraviolet and visible radiation
 Some of this radiation is reflected by the earth's surface back into space as long-wave
infrared radiation
 Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and re-reflect it back to the earth as heat,
resulting in increased temperatures (the greenhouse effect)
The enhanced greenhouse effect refers to the suggested link between the increase in greenhouse
gas emissions by man and changes in global temperatures and climate conditions
The main greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH4) and oxides of
nitrogen (e.g. NO2)
While these gases occur naturally, man is increasing greenhouse gas emissions via a number of
processes, including:
• Deforestation (less trees)                       • Industrialisation (more combustion)                        •
Increased farming / agriculture (more methane)
With increases in greenhous gas emission, it is thought that the atmospheric temperature may
increase and threaten the viability of certain ecosystems, although this link is still being debated

5.2.4   Outline the precautionary principle

The precautionary principle states that when a human-induced activity raises a significant threat
of harm to the environment or human health, then precautionary measures should be taken even
if there is no scientific consensus regarding cause and effect

 Because the global climate is a complex phenomena with many emergent properties, and
is based on time frames well beyond human lifespans, it is arguably impossible to provide
appropriate scientific evidence for enhanced global warming before consequences
escalate to potentially dire levels
 According to the precautionary principle, the onus falls on those contributing to the
enhanced greenhouse effect to either reduce their input or demonstrate their actions do
not cause harm - this makes it the responsibility of governments, industries, communities
and even the individual
 The precautionary principle is the reverse of previous historical practices whereby the
burden of proof was on the individual advocating action

5.2.5   Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the
threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect
Arguments for Action
 Risks of inaction are potentially severe, including increased frequency of severe weather
conditions (e.g. droughts, floods) and rising sea levels
 Higher temperatures will increase the spread of vector-borne diseases
 Loss of habitat will result in the extinction of some species, resulting in a loss of
biodiversity
 Changes in global temperature may affect food production, resulting in famine in certain
regions
 The effects of increased temperatures (e.g. rising sea levels) could destroy certain
industries which countries rely on, leading to poverty
 All of these consequences could place a far greater economic burden on countries than if
action were taken now
 These factors would increase competition for available resources, potentially leading to
increased international tensions

Arguments for Inaction

 Cutting greenhouse emissions may delay economic growth in developing countries,
increasing poverty in these regions
 Very difficult to police - what level of action would be considered sufficient on a global
scale in the current absence of scientific consensus?
 Boycotting trade with non-compliant countries could negatively effect economies and
create international tensions
 No guarantee that human intervention will be sufficient to alter global climate patterns
  Money and industrial practices that may be used to develop future technologies may be
lost due to restrictions imposed by carbon reduction schemes
 Carbon reduction schemes will likely result in significant job losses from key industries,
retraining workers will require significant time and money

5.2.6   Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems

Increases in global temperature pose a credible threat to arctic ecosystems, including:
 Changes in arctic conditions (reduced permafrost, diminished sea ice cover, loss of tundra
to coniferous forests)
 Rising sea levels 
 Expansion of temperate species increasing competition with native species (e.g. red fox vs
arctic fox)
 Decomposition of detritus previously trapped in ice will significantly increase greenhouse
gas levels (potentially exacerbating temperature changes)
 Increased spread of pest species and pathogens (threatening local wildlife)
 Behavioural changes in native species (e.g. hibernation patterns of polar bears, migration
of birds and fish, seasonal blooms of oceanic algae)
 Loss of habitat (e.g. early spring rains may wash away seal dens)
 Extinction and resultant loss of biodiversity as food chains are disrupted
5.5.1   Outline the binomial system of nomenclature
The binomial system of nomenclature was devised by Carolus Linnaeus as a way of classifying
organisms that was globally recognised and could demonstrate evolutionary relationships
between organisms (and thus allow for the prediction of features closely related organisms may
share)
According to the binomial system of nomenclature, every organism is designated a scientific name
with two parts:
 Genus is written first and is capitalised (e.g. Homo)
 Species follows and is written in lower case (e.g. Homo sapiens)
 Some species may also have a sub-species designation (e.g. Homo sapiens sapiens)
 Conventions:  When typing, the name should be in italics; whereas when hand writing, it
should be underlined 

5.5.2   List the seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa - kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus
and species - using an example from two different kingdoms for each level
When classifying living things, organisms are grouped according to a series of hierarchical taxa -
the more similar their characteristics, the closer the grouping
Classification of Animals and Plants

5.5.3   Distinguish between the following phyla of plants, using simple external recognition
features: bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta
5.5.4   Distinguish between the following phyla of animals, using simple external recognition
features: porifera, cnidaria, platyhemlnthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda

5.3.1   Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration
The change in population size over a given period of time can be summarised by the following
equation:   Population Size  =  ( N + I )  -  ( M + E )

Natality:  Increases to population size through reproduction (i.e. births)

Immigration:  Increases to population size from external populations 
Mortality:  Decreases to population size as a result of death (e.g. predation, senescence)
Emigration:  Decreases to population size as a result of loss to external population

5.3.3   Explain reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional
phase between these two phases
Initially, population growth may be slow, as there is a shortage of reproducing individuals which
may be widely dispersed
As numbers increase and reproduction gets underway, three stages of population growth are
seen:

Exponential Growth Phase

 There is a rapid increase in population size / growth as the natality rate exceeds the
mortality rate
 This is because there is abundant resources (e.g. food, shelter and water) and limited
environmental resistance (disease and predation uncommon)

Transitional Phase
 As the population continues to grow, eventually competition increases as availability of
resources are reduced
  Natality starts to fall and mortality starts to rise, leading to a slower rate of population
increase

Plateau Phase
 Eventually the increasing mortality rate equals the natality rate and population size
becomes constant
 The population has reached the carrying capacity (K) of the environment
 Limited resources, predation and disease all contribute to keeping the population size
balanced
 While the population size at this point may not be static, it will oscillate around the
carrying capacity to remain relatively even (no net growth)

5.3.4   List three factors that sets limits to population increase

 Every species has limits to the environmental conditions it can endure and must  remain
within appropriate levels for population growth to occur
 Some of these factors are density-dependent, while others are unrelated to the density of
the population

Factors affecting population growth:

List

5.4.1   Define evolution

Evolution is the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population

5.4.2   Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of
domesticated animals and homologous structures
Something provides evidence for evolution when it demonstrates a change in characteristics from
an ancestral form

The Fossil Record

A fossil is the preserved remains or traces of any organism from the remote past 
Fossil evidence may be either: 
 Direct (body fossils):  Bones, teeth, shells, leaves, etc. 
 Indirect (trace fossils):  Footprints, tooth marks, tracks, burrows, etc.
Types of Fossils

The totality of fossils (both discovered and undiscovered) is known as the fossil record
 The fossil record reveals that, over time, changes have occurred in features of organisms
living on the planet (evolution)
  Moreover, different kinds of organisms do not occur randomly but are found in rocks of
particular ages in a consistent order (law of fossil succession)
 This suggests that changes to an ancestral species was likely responsible for the
appearance of subsequent species (speciation via evolution)
 Furthermore, the occurrence of transitional fossils demonstrate the intermediary forms
that occurred over the evolutionary pathway taken within a single genus
Law of Fossil Succession

While fossils may provide clues regarding evolutionary processes and ancestral relationships, it is
important to realise that the fossil record is incomplete
 Fossilization requires a unusual combination of specific circumstances to occur, meaning
there are many gaps in the fossil record
 Only the hard parts of an organism are preserved and often only fragments of fossilized
remains are discovered
Fossilization

Selective Breeding

Selective breeding of domesticated animals is an example of artificial selection, which occurs when
man directly intervenes in the breeding of animals to produce desired traits in offspring
As a result of many generations of selective breeding, domesticated breeds can show significant
variation compared to the wild counterparts, demonstrating evolutionary changes in a much
shorter time frame than might have occurred naturally
Examples of selective breeding include:
 Breeding horses for speed (race horses) versus strength and endurance (draft horses)
 Breeding dogs for herding (sheepdogs), hunting (beagles) or racing (greyhounds)
 Breeding cattle for increased meat production or milk
 Breeding zebras in an attempt to retrieve the colouration gene from the extinct Quagga

Homologous Structures
 Comparative anatomy of groups of animals or plants shows certain structural features are
basically similar, implying a common ancestry
 Homologous structures are those that are similar in shape in different types of organisms
despite being used in different ways
 An example is the pentadactyl limb structure in vertebrates, whereby many animals show
a common bone composition, despite the limb being used for different forms of
locomotion (e.g. whale fin for swimming, bat wing for flying, human hand for manipulating
tools, horse hoof for galloping, etc.)
 This illustrates adaptive radiation (divergent evolution) as a similar basic plan has been
adapted to suit various environmental niches
 The more similar the homologous structures between two species are, the more closely
related they are likely to be

Homologous Structures (Pentadactyl Limb)

5.4.3   State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support
 The Malthusian dilemma states that populations tend to multiply geometrically, while
food sources multiply arithmetically
 Hence populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support
 
5.4.6   Explain how reproduction promotes variation within a species
There are three primary ways by which sexual reproduction promotes variation within a species:

Independent Assortment
 During metaphase I, when homologous chromosomes line up at the equator, the paired
chromosomes can randomly arrange themselves in one of two orientations (paternal left /
maternal right   OR  maternal left / paternal right)
 When the chromosomes separate in anaphase I, the final gametes will differ depending on
whether they got the maternal or paternal chromosome
 Independent assortment of chromosomes creates 2n different gamete combinations (n =
haploid number of chromosomes)

Crossing Over
 During prophase I, when homologous chromosomes pair up as bivalents, genetic
information can be exchanged between non-sister chromatids
 The further apart two genes are on a chromosome, the more likely they are to recombine
 Crossing over greatly increases the number of potential gamete variations by creating new
genetic combinations

Random Fertilisation
 Fertilisation results from the fusion of gametes from a paternal and maternal source,
resulting in offspring that have a combination of paternal and maternal traits 
 Because fertilisation is random, offspring will receive different combinations of traits every
time, resulting in near infinite genetic variability

5.4.7   Explain how natural selection leads to evolution

The theory of natural selection was postulated by Charles Darwin (and also independently by
Alfred Wallace) who described it as 'survival of the fittest'
 There is genetic variation within a population (which can be inherited)
 There is competition for survival (populations tend to produce more offspring than the
environment can support)
 Environmental selective pressures lead to differential reproduction
 Organisms with beneficial adaptations will be more suited to their environment and more
likely to survive to reproduce and pass on their genes
 Over generations there will be a change in allele frequency within a population (evolution)

5.4.8   Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be
antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Example 1:  Staphylococcus aureus (associated with a variety of conditions, including skin and lung
infections)
Variation:  Antibiotic resistance (some strains have a drug-resistant gene ; other strains do not)
Environmental change:  Exposure to antibiotic (methicillin)
Response:  Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) die, whereas methicillin-resistant S.
aureus (MRSA) survive and can pass on their genes
Evolution:  Over time, the frequency of antibiotic resistance in the population increases (drug-
resistant gene can also be transferred by conjugation)

Example 2:  Peppered Moth (Biston betularia)

Variation:  Colouration (some moth have a light colour, while others are a darker melanic colour)
Environmental change:  Pollution from industrial activities caused trees to blacken with soot
during the Industrial Revolution
Response:  Light coloured moths died from predation, whereas melanic moths were camouflaged
and survived to pass on their genes
Evolution:  Over time, the frequency of the melanic form increased (with improved industrial
practices, the lighter variant has become more common) 

11.1.1   Describe the process of blood clotting

 Clotting (haemostasis) is a mechanism that prevents the loss of blood from broken vessels
 Damaged cells and platelets release chemical signals called clotting factors which trigger a
coagulation cascade:
 Clotting factors convert the inactive zymogen prothrombin into the activated
enzyme thrombin
 Thrombin catalyses the conversion of the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into
an insoluble form (fibrin)
 Fibrin forms an insoluble mesh of fibres that trap blood cells at the site of damage
 Clotting factors also cause platelets to become sticky, which then adhere to the damaged
region to form a solid plug called a clot
 The clot prevents further blood loss and blocks entry to foreign pathogens

11.1.2   Outline the principle of challenge and response, clonal selection and memory cells as the
basis of immunity
Challenge and Response
 When the body is challenged by a foreign pathogen it will respond with both a non-specific
and specific immune reaction
 The body is capable of recognising invaders as they do not possess the molecular markers
that designated all body cells as 'self' (MHC class I)
 Non-specific immune cells (macrophages) present the foreign antigens to lymphocytes as
examples of 'non-self' (on MHC class II)
 These lymphocytes can then respond with the production of antibodies to destroy the
foreign invaders

Clonal Selection
 Each B lymphocyte has a specific antibody on its surface that is capable of recognising a
specific antigen
 When antigens are presented to B cells (and TH cells) by macrophages, only the B cell with
the appropriate antibody will become activated and clone
 The majority of B cell clones will differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells, a
minority will become memory B cells (BM cells)
 Because pathogens may contain several antigenic determinants, several B cell clones may
become activated (polyclonal activation)
  Because the adaptive immune response is dependent on clonal expansion to create
sufficiently large amounts of antibodies, there is a delay between initial exposure and the
production of antibodies
 When a B cell does divide and differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells, a small
proportion of clones will differentiate into memory cells
 Memory cells remain in the body for years (or even a lifetime)
 If a second infection with the same antigen occurs, the memory cells react faster and more
vigorously than the initial immune response, such that the symptoms of the infection do
not normally appear
 Because the individual no longer presents with the symptoms of infection upon exposure,
the individual is thus said to be immune

11.1.3   Define active and passive immunity

Active immunity:  Immunity due to the production of antibodies by the organism itself after the
body's defence mechanisms are stimulated by antigens
Passive immunity:  Immunity due to the acquisition of antibodies from another organism in which
active immunity has been stimulated
 This passive acquisition of antibodies can be achieved via the placenta, colostrum or by
injection (e.g. blood transfusions)

11.1.4   Explain antibody production

 Antigens stimulate an immune response via the production of antibodies
 When a pathogen invades the body, it is engulfed by wandering macrophages which
present the antigenic fragments on its surface
 This macrophage becomes an antigen-presenting cell, and presents the antigen to helper T
cells (TH cells)
 The TH cells bind to the antigen and become activated, and in turn activate the B cell with
the specific antibody for the antigen
 This B cell clones and differentiates into plasma cells and memory cells
 The plasma cells produce high quantities of specific antibody to the antigen, whereas
memory cells survive in the bloodstream for years
 Upon re-exposure to the antigen, memory cells initiate a faster and stronger response and
thus confer long-term immunity

11.1.5   Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies and their use in diagnosis and treatment
 Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies derived from a single B cell clone
 An animal (typically a mouse) is injected with an antigen and produces specific plasma
cells
 The plasma cells are removed and fused (hybridised) with tumor cells capable of endless
divisions (immortal cell line)
 The resulting hybridoma is capable of synthesising large quantities of specific antigen, for
use in diagnosis and treatment

Diagnostic Use:
 Monoclonal antibodies can be used to test for pregnancy via the presence of human
chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) 
 An antibody specific to hCG is made and is tagged to an indicator molecule (e.g.
chromatophore or pigment molecule)
  When hCG is present in the urine it binds to the anti-hCG monoclonal antibody and this
complex will move with the fluid until it reaches a second group of fixed antibodies 
 When the complex binds to the fixed antibodies, they will appear as a blue line (positive
result) due to the presence of the indicator molecule

Treatment Use:
 Monoclonal antibodies can be used for the emergency treatment of rabies
 Because the rabies virus is potentially fatal in non-vaccinated individuals, injecting purified
quantities of antibody is an effective emergency treatment for a very serious viral infection

11.1.6   Explain the principle of vaccination

 Vaccinations induce artificial active immunity by stimulating the production of memory
cells 
 A vaccine contains weakened or attenuated forms of the pathogen and is (usually) injected
into the bloodstream
 Because a modified form of the pathogen is injected, the individual should not develop
disease symptoms
 The body responds to the vaccine by initiating a primary immune response, resulting in the
production of memory cells
 When exposed to the actual pathogen, the memory cells trigger a secondary immune
response that is much faster and stronger
 Vaccines confer long-term immunity, however because memory cells may not survive a life
time, booster shots may be required

11.1.7   Discuss the benefits and dangers of vaccination

Benefits:
 Vaccination results in active immunity
 It can limit the spread of infectious diseases (pandemics / epidemics)
 Diseases may be eradicated entirely (e.g. smallpox)
 Vaccination programs may reduce the mortality rate of a disease as well as protect
vulnerable groups (e.g. youth, elderly)
 Vaccinations will decrease the crippling effects of certain diseases (e.g. polio) 
 It will decrease health care costs associated with treating disease conditions

Risks:
 Vaccinated individuals may produce (mild) symptoms of the disease
 There may be human error in the preparation, storage or administration of the vaccine
 Individuals may react badly to vaccines (e.g. hypersensitive / allergic reactions)
 Immunity may not be life long - booster shots may be required
 There may be possible toxic effects of mercury-based preservatives used in vaccines

11.2.1   State the role of bones, ligaments, muscles, tendons and nerves in human movement
Bones:  Provide a hard framework for stability and acts as levers (3rd class) to facilitate movement
Ligaments:  Holds bones together
Muscles:  Provide the force required for movement by moving one bone (point of insertion) in
relation to another (point of origin)
Tendons:  Connect muscles to bones
Nerves:  Motor neurons provides the stimulus for muscle movement and co-ordinates sets of
antagonistic muscles
11.2.2   Label a diagram of the human elbow joint, including cartilage, synovial fluid, joint capsule,
named bones and antagonistic muscles (biceps and triceps)
Structure of the Human Elbow Joint

11.2.3   Outline the function of the structures in the human elbow joint named in 11.2.2
Biceps:  Bends the arm (flexor)
Triceps:  Straightens the arm (extensor)
Humerus:  Anchors muscle (muscle origin)
Radius / Ulna:  Acts as forearm levers (muscle insertion) - radius acts as a lever for the biceps, ulna
acts as a lever for the triceps
Cartilage:  Allows easy movement (smooth surface), absorbs shock and distributes load
Synovial Fluid:  Provides food, oxygen and lubrication to the cartilage
Joint Capsule:  Seals the joint space and provides passive stability by limiting range of movement

11.2.4   Compare the movement of the hip joint and knee joint
Similarities:
 Both are synovial joints
 Both are involved in the movement of the leg

Differences:

Comparison of Hip Joint and Knee Joint

11.2.5   Describe the structure of striated muscle fibres, including the myofibrils with light and dark
bands, mitochondria, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, nuclei and the sarcolemma
Each muscle fibre has the following specialised features designed to facilitate muscular
contraction
 Many nuclei (fibres are long and were formed from many muscle cells fusing together,
hence the fibres are multinucleated)
 Large number of mitochondria (muscle contraction requires a lot of ATP)
 Tubular myofibrils, divided into sections called sarcomeres, and made of two different
myofilaments (proteins responsible for contraction)
 Where thin (actin) and thick (myosin) filaments overlap, a dark band occurs, and
this is flanked by light regions containing thin filament only
 The membrane surrounding a muscle fibre is called the sarcolemma
 The internal membranous network is called the sacroplasmic reticulum, it is analogous to
endoplasmic reticulum but is specialised for muscle contraction (it contains high levels of
Ca2+ ions)

Structure of a Striated Muscle Fibre

11.2.6   Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of the sarcomere, including Z lines, actin
filaments, myosin filaments with heads, and the resultant light and dark bands

 The H zone is the area only occupied by the thick filaments (myosin)
 The I bands (light) are the regions occupied by only thin filaments (actin)
 The A bands (dark) are the regions occupied by both filaments (overlap)
 The Z lines represent the extremities of a single sarcomere

11.2.7   Explain how skeletal muscles contract, including the release of calcium ions from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, the formation of cross-bridges, the sliding of actin and myosin filaments,
and the use of ATP to break cross-bridges and reset myosin heads
 An action potential from a motor neuron triggers the release of Ca 2+ ions from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Calcium ions expose the myosin heads by binding to a blocking molecule (troponin
complexed with tropomyosin) and causing it to move
 The myosin heads form a cross-bridge with actin binding sites
  ATP binds to the myosin heads and breaks the cross-bridge
 The hydrolysis of ATP causes the myosin heads to change shape and swivel - this moves
them towards the next actin binding site
 The movement of the myosin heads cause the actin filaments to slide over the myosin
filaments, shortening the length of the sarcomere
 Via the repeated hydrolysis of ATP, the skeletal muscle will contract
    
Ultrafiltration is the first of three processes by which metabolic wastes are separated from the
blood and urine is formed
 It is the non-specific filtration of the blood under high pressure and occurs in the
Bowman’s capsule of the nephron

Structure of the Bowman’s Capsule

 As the blood moves into the kidney via afferent arterioles it enters a knot-like capillary tuft
called a glomerulus
 This glomerulus is encapsulated by the Bowman’s capsule, which is comprised of an inner
surface of cells called podocytes
 Podocytes have cellular extensions called pedicels that wrap around the blood vessels of
the glomerulus
 Between the podocytes and the glomerulus is a glycoprotein matrix called the basement
membrane that filters the blood

Basement Membrane
Blood is filtered by a mesh called the basement membrane, which lies between the glomerulus
and Bowman’s capsule
 Glomerular blood vessels are fenestrated (have pores) which means blood can freely exit
the glomerulus
 The podocytes of the Bowman’s capsule have gaps between their pedicels, allowing for
fluid to move freely into the nephron
 Consequently, the basement membrane functions as the sole filtration barrier within the
nephron

The basement membrane is size-selective and restricts the passage of blood cells and large
proteins
 Hence when the blood is filtered, the filtrate formed does not contain any blood cells,
platelets or plasma proteins

Hydrostatic Pressure
Ultrafiltration involves blood being forced at high pressure against the basement membrane,
optimising filtration
 This high hydrostatic pressure is created in the glomerulus by having a wide afferent
arteriole and a narrow efferent arteriole
 This means it is easy for blood to enter the glomerulus, but difficult for it to exit –
increasing pressure within the glomerulus
 Additionally, the glomerulus forms extensive narrow branches, which increases the
surface area available for filtration
  The net pressure gradient within the glomerulus forces blood to move into the capsule
space (forming filtrate)

11.3.7   Explain the roles of the loop of Henle, medulla, collecting duct and ADH (vasopressin) in
maintaining the water balance of the blood
Creating a Salt Gradient in the Medulla
 The function of the loop of Henle is to create a salt bath concentration in the fluid
surrounding the tubule
 The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water, but impermeable to salts
 The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to salts, but impermeable to water
 This means that as the loop descends into the medulla, the interstitial fluid becomes more
salty (and less salty as it ascends into the cortex)
 As the vasa recta blood network that surrounds the loop flows in the opposite direction
(counter-current exchange), this further multiplies the effect

Osmoregulation
 As the collecting duct passes through the medulla as it drains into the ureter, the
hypertonic solution of the deep medulla will draw water by osmosis
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) is a hormone released from the posterior
pituitary in response to dehydration (detected by hypothalamus)
 ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water, allowing more water to be
reabsorbed by osmosis (via the production of aquaporins)
 This means less water remains in the filtrate and the urine becomes more concentrated
 When the individual is suitably rehydrated, ADH levels will decrease and less water will be
reabsorbed from the collecting ducts

11.3.8   Explain the difference in the concentration of proteins, glucose and urea between blood
plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine
Proteins:
 Proteins will be present in blood plasma, but not present in glomerular filtrate or urine
 This is because proteins cannot pass across the basement membrane during ultrafiltration
and thus cannot form part of the filtrate

Glucose:
 Glucose will be present in blood plasma and glomerular filtrate, but not present in urine
(normally)
 This is because the glucose is selectively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule
 It is reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood by active transport (symport with Na + ions)

Urea:
 Urea will be present in blood plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine
 Only about 50% of urea is reabsorbed (some urea is reabsorbed to help regulate the
medullary osmolarity gradient)
 Because water is reabsorbed from the filtrate (by osmosis, due to the hypertonicity of the
medulla), urea becomes more concentrated in urine
 The concentration of urea in the urine will depend on the amount of water in the urine
11.3.9   Explain the presence of glucose in the urine of untreated diabetic patients
 The urine of non-diabetic patients should contain no glucose as it is selectively reabsorbed
from the filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule
 Diabetics have higher levels of blood glucose due to either a lack of insulin secretion (type
I) or insensitivity to insulin secretions (type II)
 Because of this, not all of the glucose in diabetics is reabsorbed into the blood (protein
pumps in tubule wall become saturated)
 This results in the presence of glucose in the urine of untreated diabetics, which can be
detected using test strips

10.3.1   Define polygenic inheritance

 Polygenic inheritance refers to a single characteristic that is controlled by more than two
genes (also called multifactorial inheritance)
 Polygenic inheritance patterns normally follow a normal (bell-shaped) distribution curve -
it shows continuous variation
 By increasing the number of genes controlling a trait, the number of phenotype
combinations also increase, until the number of phenotypes to which an individual can be
assigned are no longer discrete, but continuous

10.3.2   Explain that polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation using two
examples, one of which must be human skin colour
Human Skin Colour
 The colour of human skin is determined by the amount of dark pigment (melanin) it
contains
 At least four (possibly more) genes are involved in melanin production; for each gene one
allele codes for melanin production, the other does not
 The combination of melanin producing alleles determines the degree of pigmentation,
leading to continuous variation
TED Talks: Inheritance of Human Skin Colour

Grain Colour in Wheat

 Wheat grains vary in colour from white to dark red, depending on the amount of red
pigment they contain
 Three genes control the colour and each gene has two alleles (one coding for red pigment,
the other coding for no pigment)
 The most frequent combinations have an equal number of 'pigment producing' and 'no
pigment' alleles, whereas combinations of one extreme or the other are relatively rare
 The overal pattern of inheritance shows continuous variation

11.4.1   Annotate a light micrograph of testis tissue to show the location and function of interstitial
cells (Leydig cells), germline epithelium cells, developing spermatozoa and Sertoli cells

 The testes are composed of seminiferous tubules which produce sperm

 Each tubule is surrounded by a basement membrane which is lined by germline epithelium
cells
 The germline epithelium will divide by mitosis to make spermatogonia (which divide by
meiosis to make spermatozoa)
  The developing spermatozoa are nourished by Sertoli cells
 Outside of the tubules are blood capillaries and interstitial cells (Leydig cells), which
produce the male sex hormone, testosterone 

11.4.2   Outline the processes involved in spermatogenesis within the testes, including mitosis, cell
growth, the two divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation
 Spermatogenesis describes the production of spermatozoa (sperm) in the seminiferous
tubules of the testes
 The first stage of sperm production requires the division of germline epithelium by mitosis
 These cells (spermatogonia) then undergo a period of growth
 This is followed by two meiotic divisions that result in four haploid daughter cells
 These haploid cells then differentiate to form sperm cells
 The developing sperm cells are nourished throughout by the Sertoli cells

11.4.3   State the role of LH, testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis

LH:  Stimulates the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) to produce testosterone
FSH:  Stimulates the (first) meiotic division of spermatogonia
Testosterone:  Stimulates the (second) meiotic division of spermatogonia and the maturation of
spermatozoa through differentiation

11.4.4   Annotate a diagram of the ovary to show the location and function of germline epithelium,
primordial follicles, mature follicles and secondary oocyte
Structure of the Ovary

 The ovary contains follicles in various stages of development

 Egg cells within primordial follicles have been arrested in prophase I and have yet to
undergo meiotic division
 Egg cells within mature follicles have begun meiotic division and are released from the
ovary as secondary oocytes (arrested in prophase II)
 The ruptured follicle develops into a corpus luteum that will, in time, degenerate into a
corpus albicans
 The germline epithelium functions as an epithelial layer separating ovarian tissue from the
rest of the body - it is not involved in oocyte development

11.4.5   Outline the processes involved in oogenesis within the ovary, including mitosis, cell growth,
the two divisions of meiosis, the unequal division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar body
  Oogenesis describes the production of female gametes (ova) within the ovary
 The process begins during foetal development, when a large number of cells (oogonia) are
formed by mitosis before undergoing a period of growth
 These cells begin meiosis but are arrested in prophase I until puberty
 At puberty, some follicles continue to develop each month is response to FSH secretion
 These follicles complete the first meiotic division to form two cells of unequal size
 The cell with less cytoplasm is a polar body (which degenerates), while the larger cell
forms a secondary oocyte
 The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division but is arrested in prophase II
(until fertilisation)
 It is released from the ovary (ruptured follicle develops into corpus luteum) and, if
fertilisation occurs, will complete meiosis
 The second meiotic division will produce an ovum and a second polar body

11.4.6   Draw and label a diagram of a mature sperm and egg

11.4.7   Outline the role of the epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of
semen
Epididymis
 Testicular fluids are removed, concentrating the sperm
 Sperm mature and develop the ability to swim

Seminal Vesicle
 Adds nutrients (including fructose) for respiration
 Secretes prostaglandins, causing contractions to the female system and helping sperm
move towards the egg

Prostate Gland
 Secretes alkaline fluid which neutralises vaginal acids (changes pH from 4 to 6 which aids
sperm motility)

11.4.8   Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, including the number of
gametes and the timing of formation and release of gametes
Similarities:
 Both processes result in the formation of haploid gametes
 Both processes involve mitosis, growth and meiosis

Differences:
11.4.9   Describe the process of fertilisation, including the acrosome reaction, penetration of the
egg membrane by a sperm and the cortical reaction
 When the sperm enters the female reproductive tract, biochemical changes to the sperm
occur in the final part of its maturation (capacitation) 
 The sperm is attracted to the egg due to the release of chemical signals from the
secondary oocyte (chemotaxis)
 Fertilisation generally occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube)
 To enter the egg membrane, the sperm must penetrate the protective jelly coat (zona
pellucida) surrounding the egg via the acrosome reaction
 The acrosome vesicle fuses with the jelly coat and releases digestive enzymes
which soften the glycoprotein matrix
 The membrane of the egg and sperm then fuse and the sperm nucleus (and centriole)
enters the egg
 To prevent other sperm from penetrating the fertilised egg (polyspermy), the jelly coat
undergoes biochemical changes via the cortical reaction
 The cortical granules release enzymes that destroy the sperm-binding proteins on
the jelly coat
 Now fertilised, the nucleus of the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II and then the egg
and sperm nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote

11.4.10   Outline the role of hCG in early pregnancy

 The endometrium is a blood-rich environment in which an implanted zygote can grow and
it is sustained by the hormone progesterone
 If progesterone levels aren't maintained (i.e. the corpus luteum degenerates), then the
endometrium will be sloughed away (menstruation)
 A fertilised zygote develops into a blastocyst that secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin
(hCG)
 hCG maintains the corpus luteum post-ovulation so that the blastocyst can remain
embedded in the endometrium and continue to develop
 Gradually the placenta develops and produces progesterone (at around 8 - 10 weeks), at
which point the corpus luteum is no longer needed

11.4.11   Outline early embryo development up to the implantation of the blastocyst

 After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes several mitotic divisions to create a solid ball of
cells called a morula (at around 4 days)
  Unequal divisions beyond this stage cause a fluid-filled cavity to form in the middle - this
makes a blastocyst (at around 5 days)
 The blastocyst consists of:
 An inner mass of cells (this will develop into the embryo)
 An outer layer called the trophoblast (this will develop into the placenta)
 A fluid filled cavity (called the blastocoele)
 These developments all occur as the developing embryo is moving from the oviduct to the
uterus
 When the blastocyst reaches the uterus, it will embed in the endometrium (implantation)

11.4.12   Explain how the structure and function of the placenta, including its hormonal role in
secretion of estrogen and progesterone, maintain pregnancy
Structure and Function
 The placenta is a disc-shaped structure that nourishes the developing embryo
 It is formed from the development of the trophoblast upon implantation and eventually
invades the uterine wall
 The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta and maternal blood pools via open
ended arterioles into intervillous spaces (lacunae)
 Chorionic villi extend into these spaces and facilitate the exchange of materials between
the maternal blood and fetal capillaries
 Nutrients, oxygen and antibodies will be taken up by the fetus, while carbon dioxide and
waste products will be removed
 The placenta is expelled from the uterus after childbirth

Hormonal Role
 The placenta also takes over the hormonal role of the ovary (at around 12 weeks)
 Estrogen stimulates growth of the muscles of the uterus (myometrium) and the
development of the mammary glands
 Progesterone maintains the endometrium, as well as reduces uterine contractions and
maternal immune response (no antibodies against fetus)
 Both estrogen and progesterone levels drop near time of birth

11.4.13   State that the fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
 The fetus develops in a fluid-filled space called the amniotic sac
 Amniotic fluid is largely incompressible and good at absorbing pressure, and so protects
the child from impacts to the uterine wall
 The fluid also creates buoyancy so that the fetus does not have to support its own body
weight while the skeletal system develops
 Finally, amniotic fluid prevents dehydration of the tissues, while the amniotic sac provides
an effective barrier against infection

11.4.14   State that materials are exchanged between the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta
The fetus relies on the exchange of materials across the placental wall to grow and develop:
11.4.15   Outline the process of birth and its hormonal control, including the changes in
progesterone and oxytocin levels and positive feedback
 The process of childbirth is called parturition and is controlled by the hormone oxytocin
 After nine months, the fetus is fully grown and takes up all available space in the uterus,
stretching the walls of the uterus
 This causes a signal to be sent to the brain, releasing oxytocin from the posterior pituitary
 Oxytocin inhibits progesterone, which was inhibiting uterine contractions
 Oxytocin also directly stimulates the smooth muscle of the uterine wall to contract,
initiating the birthing process
 The contraction of the uterine wall causes further stretching, which triggers more oxytocin
to be released (causing even more contraction)
 Additionally, the fetus responds to the cramped conditions by releasing prostaglandins
which cause further myometrial contractions
 As the stimulus causing oxytocin release is increased by the effects of oxytocin, this
creates a positive feedback pathway
 Contractions will stop when labour is complete and the baby is birthed (no more
stretching of the uterine wall)