1

Simple Stresses and Strains

1.1  Introduction
The reaction of materials to the action of external forces is indicated by the mechanical properties
of materials. These properties are primarily related to the elastic and plastic behaviour, as well
as, the over-all strength and fracture characteristics of materials. The mechanical properties are
structure- sensitive. This is in distinct contrast to most of the physical properties, which are structure-
insensitives. Mechanical properties of materials play a vital role in the development of structures,
machines and other products. These properties are evaluated by conducting destructive testing.
Mechanical properties, also sometimes known as engineering properties, include tensile strength,
ductility, compressive strength, fatigue, creep and others. The deformations produced and the
stresses induced in the material as a result of application of external loads are the important aspects
of mechanical properties.

1.2  Stress-strain curves in tension

Tensile strength is defined as the ability of a material to support or carry an applied axial load. The
property enables a material to resist being pulled apart. Tensile strength of the material is tested by
conducting tension test.
In the tension test, a certain length, known as gauge length (usually 50 mm) of the material is
subjected to an axial load as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a). The diameter of the cross-section of the material
to be tested is generally taken to be 12 mm. The behaviour of the material is shown in the form of a
stress-strain curve in Fig. 1.2.

Fig.1.1  A tension test.

2   Strength of Materials

As the load on the test specimen increases, the resisting force also increases. Once the load
is removed, the material regains its original shape and size. Hooke’s law is strictly valid under
this condition, where stress is linearly proportional to strain. This point is known as limit of
proportionality, p. During this period, the material regains its orignal conditions once the load is
removed. Point ‘e’ represents elastic limit. Upto ‘e’ material recovers its original shape and size but
the recovery process is negligibly slow as compared to limit of proportionality. For some materials,
these two points p and e are almost identical, but in most of the cases, the elastic limit is slightly
higher.
Elongation beyond the elastic limit becomes unrecoverable and the material tends to stay
permanently deformed. This situation is known as plastic deformation. When the load is removed,
the specimen retains a permanent change in shape. It means the external load has exceeded the
resisting force. An engineer is usually interested in either the elastic or plastic response. Plasticity and
elasticity are the properties of critical importance when evaluating a material for manufacturing.
When the elastic limit is exceeded, stress and strain do not increase in a proportional way. Rather
increase in strain is more prominent as compared to increase in stress. For some materials, a stress
value may be reached where additional strain occurs without further increase in stress. This point
is known as yield point and the corresponding stress is called the yield stress. For mild steels (low
carbon steels) there are two distinct yield points, the upper and the lower one. But it is the lower
yield point which is usually common. As the load and hence the stress is further increased, it reaches
its maximum value and then begins to decrease. The maximum stress is called the ultimate stress
or tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength, U of the material.
If the specimen is loaded beyond its ultimate strength, neck formation starts. During this period,
the cross-sectional are no longer remains uniform in the gage length rather it reduces drastically in
the necked region. The stress drops further and the specimen finally fractures in the necked region
at the point f as shown in the Fig. 1.2. The material is subjected to neck formation just before failure
as is shown in Fig. 1.1(b). The stress at this point is known as fracture or breaking stress.

Fig. 1.2  An engineering stress-strain curve for ductile materials.

 Simple Stresses and Strains   3

For most of the materials (e.g. cast iron), the yield point is not well defined. In such case, the
elastic-to-plastic transition is not distinct and the yield point is determined through the use of offset.
In the offset method, the strain usually known as offset strain is specified at 0.2% but the values
of 0.1% or even 0.02% may also be used when small amounts of plastic deformation could lead to
component failure. The point of intersection of a line drawn parallel to the elastic line with the stress-
strain curve gives the position of yield point in such cases. If the applied stresses are kept below the
0.2% offset yield strength, the user can be guaranteed that any observed plastic deformation will be
less than 0.2% of the original dimension (Fig. 1.3.).

Fig. 1.3  A stress-strain curve for brittle materials.

The modulus of elasticity, E may be determined as the slope of the linear portion of the stress-
strain curve.

1.3 True stress-strain curve

Materials do not obey Hooke’s law in plastic region. Fig. 1.2 has been drawn considering the
original cross-sectional area of the test specimen. But it is not the actual case. The instantaneous area
supporting the load is gradually decreasing as the specimen elongates. Thus the engineering stress
does not represent the actual stress or true stress. Similarly, the true strain differs from engineering
strain. These are defined as follows:
Load applied P
True stress = = ... (1.1)
Instantaneous area of cross-section Af
where Af is not necessarily the cross-sectional area at the point of failure.
 lf 
True strain = ln   ... (1.2)
 lo 
where lf = Instantaneous length
lo = Original length
4   Strength of Materials

True strain is also known as natural or logarithmic strain. For small values of strain, the two strains
are approximately equal. But they diverge rapidly as strain increases.
The true stress-strain curve is represented by the equation
 = K . n ... (1.3)
where  = Stress
 = Strain
K = A constant, known as strength coefficient
n = Strain-hardening exponent
 1 for true stress-strain curve
= 1 for engineering stress-strain curve, where K is replaced by E, the modulus of elasticity.

Fig. 1.4  A comparison between engineering and true stress-strain curves.

The higher value of n indicates that material can be stretched uniformly with relative ease before
it begins to neck. This is an important consideration in forming operations, where work material is
stretched beyond elastic region. An engineering curve and a true curve are compared in Fig. 1.4.
The specimen’s necked region is subjected to three-dimensional tensile stresses. This state gives
higher stress values than the actual true stress, hence the curve must be corrected downward as shown
in Fig. 1.5.
 Simple Stresses and Strains   5

Fig. 1.5 Correction in stress-strain curve for neck formation.

1.4  POisson’s Ratio

When a bar is subjected to a tension test, there is an increase in its length in the direction of load
applied, but at the same time, there is a contraction of the lateral dimensions in the transverse
direction (direction perpendicular to the direction of load applied). These changes in dimensions are
related to each other by Poisson’s ratio, defined as
Lateral strain
 = – ... (1.4)
Longitudinal strain
Negative sign indicates that if longitudinal strain increases, lateral strain decreases. For most metals,
v is about 0.33, and for cork it is close to zero, which makes cork so useful for stoppers on bottles. In
some extreme cases, values like 0.1 (cement concrete) and 0.5 (rubber) have been observed. Its value
is same in tension as well as in compression.

1.5 Ductility
Ductility of a material enables it to be easily bent. The material can be drawn into long wires without
rupture. A higher value of ductility indicates that a material can sustain large tensile strain upto the
point of rupture.
Ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage elongation expressed as.
l − lo
Percentage elongation = f ×100 ... (1.5)
lo
where lf = Final length
lo = Original length
Ductility is also measured in terms of reduction in area (RA), expressed as
A − Af
RA = o ×100 ... (1.6)
Ao
where Ao and Af represent the original and the final cross-sectional area respectively.
6   Strength of Materials

Values for two measures are high in a ductile material and are nil in a non-ductile material. Chalk
has zero ductility because it does not stretch at all. RA can range from 0% (brittle) to 100% (extremely
plastic). An arbitrary strain of 0.05 inch/inch is frequently taken as the dividing line between brittle
and ductile materials. For relatively ductile materials, the breaking strength is less than the ultimate
tensile strength, and necking precedes fracture. For a brittle material, fracture usually occurs before
necking, and possibly before the onset of plastic flow.

1.6 Elongation produced in a test specimen

Load P
Stress () = =
Area A
Change in length (elongation) dl
Strain () = =
Original length lo

s P  dl  Pl o
Modulus of elasticity (E) = =    =
∈  A  lo  Adl
Plo
dl =
AE

1.7  Shear stress and strain

Shear stress is produced as a result of shear force applied tangential to the surface of a body.

Shear force
Mathematically, Shear stress () = ... (1.7)
Shear area
Shear strain is produced by shear stress and is measured by the change in the angle. In Fig. 1.6, a
block ABCD is subjected to a shear force Fs on its upper face CD while the lower face AB remains
fixed. Due to application of Fs, the body deforms and takes new shape as ABCD making an angle 
with the vertical. Shear strain, in this case is given by

Fig. 1.6
 Simple Stresses and Strains   7

DD ' dl
tan   = = ... (1.8)
AD l
The modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (G) is defined as the ratio of shear stress and shear strain.
τ
G = ... (1.9)
φ
1.8 Volumetric strain
Volumetric strain results due to change in volume of a body. It is the ratio of change in volume to
original volume.

dV
Mathematically, Volumetric strain, V = ... (1.10)
V0
where V0 = Original volume
dV = Change in volume

The volumetric strain, for a body subjected to three mutually perpendicular normal stresses is
given as
V = x + y + z ... (1.11)

where x, y and z are the strains produced in x, y and z directions respectively and are given as
s sy s 
∈x = x − ν −ν z 
E E E
sy sz sx 
∈y = −ν −ν 
E E E
sz sx sy 
and ∈z = E − ν E − ν E  ... (1.12)

where x, y and z are the normal stresses in x, y and z directions respectively.
where V = Poisson’s ratio
E = Modulus of elasticity
The equation (1.11), on substituting equation (1.12), changes to
sx +sy +sz
V = (1 – 2) ... (1.13)
E
or x = y = z = , the equation (1.13) reduces to
F
3s
V = (1 – 2) ... (1.14)
E
or a circular rod of diameter d and length l, the volumetric strain is given as
F
V = 2d + l ... (1.15)
where d = Strain produced in the diameter
l = Strain produced in the length
8   Strength of Materials

For a sphere of diameter d, the expression for volumetric strain is

V = 3d ... (1.16)

1.9  Bulk modulus of elasticity

Consider a body being subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses of equal intensity
(Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7

The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) is defined as the ratio of uniform stress intensity to volumetric
strain.
s
  Mathematically, K = ... (1.17)
∈V

1.10 Elastic constants relationship

The relationship between modulus of elasticity (E) and modulus of rigidity (G) is expressed as
E = 2G (1 + ) ... (1.18)
And, between modulus of elasticity (E) and bulk modulus (K), the relationship is found to be
E = 3K (1 – 2) ... (1.19)
The relationship among all the three elastic constants is given as
9 KG
E = ... (1.20)
3K + G
Example 1.1
During a tension test, a mild steel specimen of diameter 12 mm and gauge length 60 mm elongates
to 75 mm, The rod can sustain a maximum load of 50 kN but yields at 25 kN and breaks at 30 kN.
Find its yield strength, ultimate strength, strength at the point of failure, actual strength at the point
of failure when the diameter is reduced to 8 mm, percentage elongation, and percentage reduction
in area.
 Simple Stresses and Strains   9

Solution:  Given,
Initial diameter, d1 = 12 mm
Final diameter, d2 = 8 mm
Initial length, l1 = 60 mm
Final length, l2 = 75 mm
Ultimate load = 50 kN
Yielding load = 25 kN
Breaking load = 30 kN
π 2
d1
Initial cross-sectional area, A1 =
4
π
= × 12 = 113.09 mm2
2

4
π 2 π
Final cross-sectional area, A2 = d 2 = × 82 = 50.26 mm2
4 4
The yield strength is obtained as
Load at the yield point
Y =
Initial cross-sectional area
25 × 103
= = 221.06 N/mm2 Ans.
113.09
The ultimate strength is found as
Maximum load
U =
Initial cross-sectional area
50 × 103
= = 442.12 N/mm2 Ans.
113.09
The strength at the failure point is given as
Load at the failure point
f =
Initial cross-sectional area
30 × 103
= = 265.27 N/mm2 Ans.
113.09
The actual strength at the failure point is obtained as
Load at the failure point
fa =
Final cross-sectional area
30 × 103
= = 596.9 N/mm2 Ans.
50.26
The percentage elongation is given as
l2 − l1
% elongation = × 100
l1
10   Strength of Materials

75 − 60
= × 100 = 25% Ans.
60
The percentage reduction in area is found as
A1 − A2 113.09 − 50.26
RA = × 100 = × 100 = 55.55% Ans.
A1 113.09
Example 1.2
A 2 m solid steel bar of diameter 100 mm is subjected to a pull of 100 kN. Find the increase in length
of the bar. Also find the stress and strain produced in the bar. Take E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8

Given, Diameter of the bar, d = 100 mm

Length of the bar, l = 2 m = 2 × 1000 = 2000 mm

Pull force, P = 100 kN = 105 N

Increase in length, in the direction of load applied is given as

Pl
dl =
AE
105 × 2000
=
π / 4 × 1002 × 200 × 103
= 0.127mm Ans.
The strain produced in the bar is obtained as
dl 0.127 mm
 = =
l 2000 mm

= 6.36  10–5 Ans.

The stress induced in the bar is

 = E = 6.36 10–5 

= 12.72 N/mm2 Ans.

 Simple Stresses and Strains   11

Example 1.3
A bar of different cross-sections is subjected to a tensile force of 50 kN (Fig. 1.9). Find the stresses
in different sections and the total elongation produced in the bar. Take, E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.9

For part AB For part BC For part CD

Length l1 = 80 mm l2 = 60 mm l3 = 40 mm
Diameter d1 = 40 mm d2 = 20 mm d3 = 10 mm
The load acting on each cross-section of the bar is the same i.e., 50 kN.
50 × 103
Stress in AB = = 39.78 N/mm2 Ans.
π / 4 × 402
50 × 103
Stress in BC = = 159.15 N/mm2 Ans.
π / 4 × 202
50 × 103
Stress in CD = = 636.62 N/mm2 Ans.
π / 4 × 102

Hence, maximum stress is induced in CD and minimum stress in AB.

Total elongation of the bar is given as
Pl1 Pl Pl Pl l l 
dl = + 2 + 3 =  1 + 2 + 3 
A1 E A2 E A3 E E  A1 A2 A3 

50 × 103  80 60 40 
=  + +
200 × 103  π / 4 × 40
2
π / 4 × 20 π / 4 × 102 
2

= 0.191 mm Ans.

Example 1.4 
A prismatic bar of 10 mm diameter is subjected to different axial forces as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Calculate the net change in length of the bar. Take, E = 200 kN/mm2.
12   Strength of Materials

Fig. 1.10

Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.10.

For part AB For part BC For part CD
Length l1 = 3 m l2 = 2 m l3 = 1 m
Cross-sectional areas of the three parts are equal.
π
A1 = A2 = A3 = A = × 10 = 78.54 mm2
2

4
The free body diagram for every part is given in Fig. 1.11. Each part is subjected to a compressive
force.
Change in length of AB due to 50 kN is
Pl 50 × 103 × 3 × 103
dl1 = − 11
=− = –9.55 mm
AE 78.54 × 200 × 103
hange in length of BC due to 60 kN is
C
P2 l2 60 × 103 × 2 × 103
dl2 = − =− = –7.64 mm
AE 78.54 × 200 × 103

Fig. 1.11

Change in length of CD due to 80 kN is

P3l3 80 × 103 × 1 × 103
dl3 = – = = –5.09 mm
AE 78.54 × 200 × 103
 Simple Stresses and Strains   13

ence, total change in length of the bar is given as

H
dl = – (dl1 + dl2 + dl3)
= – (9.55 + 7.64 + 5.09) mm = – 22.28 mm
= 22.28 mm (Decrease) Ans.

Example 1.5  
A rod consists of three bars of unequal diameters (Fig.1.12). Their diameters and lengths are
shown in the figure. Find the stress in each bar. Also find the elongation of the rod. Take,
E = 200 kN/mm2.

Fig. 1.12

Solution:  Refer Fig.1.2.

For bar AB For bar BC For bar CD
Length l1 = 1.5 m l2 = 2.5 m l3 = 2.0m
Diameter d1 = 20 mm d2 = 40 mm d3 = 30 mm
The FBD of each bar is given in Fig. 1.13.

Fig. 1.13

Forces in bars (1) and (2) are compressive and in bar (3) tensile.
The cross-sectional areas of three bars are found as
π 2 π
A1 = d1 = × 20 = 314.16 mm2
2

4 4
14   Strength of Materials

π 2 π
A2 = d 2 = × 402 = 1256.63 mm2
4 4
π 2 π
and A3 = d3 = × 302 = 706.86 mm2
4 4
Stresses induced in three bars are obtained as

P1 10 × 103
1 = = = 31.83 N/mm2 (C) Ans.
A1 314.16
P2 30 × 103
 2 = = = 23.87 N/mm2 (C) Ans.
A2 1256.63
P3 60 × 103
and 3 = = = 84.88 N/mm2 (T) Ans.
A3 706.86
Hence, maximum stress is developed in CD and minimum in BC.
Changes in length of three bars are obtained as
P1 l1 10 × 103 × 1.5 × 103
dl1 = − = − = – 0.238 mm
A1 E 314.16 × 200 × 103
P2 l2 30 × 103 × 2.5 × 103
dl2 = – = − = – 0.298 mm
A2 E 1256.63 × 200 × 103

P3 l3 60 × 103 × 2 × 103
and dl3 = = = 0.848 mm
A3 E 706.86 × 200 × 103
Hence, change in length of rod is
dl = dl1 + dl2 + dl3
= (– 0.238 – 0.298 + 0.848 ) mm
= 0.312 mm (Increase) Ans.

Example 1.6 
A 2 m steel bar of diameter 15 mm is subjected to an axial pull of 50 kN. Calculate the change is
length, diameter and volume of the bar, if the poisson’s ratio is 0.25. Also, find the workdone in
stretching the bar. Take, E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution:  Given,
Initial diameter of steel bar, d = 15 mm
Initial length, l = 2 m = 2  1000 = 2000 mm
Pull force, P = 50 kN = 5  104 N
Poisson’s ratio,  = 0.25
 Simple Stresses and Strains   15

The cross-sectional area of the steel bar is

π 2 π
A = d = × 152 = 176.71 mm2
4 4
The normal stress produced in the bar is
P 5 × 104
 = = = 282.94 N/mm2
A 176.71
The strain produced is
s 282.92
 = = = 1.414 10–3
E 200 × 103
Change in length ∆l
Also  = =
Initial length l
or  l = . l
= 1.414  10–3  2000 = 2.83 mm Ans.
Poisson’s ratio is
Lateral strain
 =
Longitudinal strain
(change in diametre/Initial diametre) (∆ d / d )
= =
(change in length/Initial leength) (∆l / l )
∆d ∆l
= 
d l
= 0.25  1.414  10–3 = 3.535  10–4
or ∆d = d  3.535  10–4

=15  3.535  10–4 = 0.0053 mm Ans.
The volume of the bar is
π 2
V = d ×l
4
π
= × 152 × 2000 = 353429.17 mm3
4

dV
Now = e (1 – 2V)
V
or dV = V e (1 – 2V)
= 353429.17  1.414  10–3  (1 – 2  0.25)
= 249.87 mm3 Ans.
16   Strength of Materials

The workdone in stretching the bar is

1
W = × P × ∆l
2
1
= × 5 × 104 × 2.83 = 70750 N.mm = 70.75 Joules Ans.
2
Example 1.7
Find the expression for the elongation of a tapered bar of length l whose diameter varies uniformly
from d at one end to D at other end, when subjected to an axial pull P with E as modulus of
elasticity.
Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.14.

Fig. 1.14

Consider an element of thickness dx at a distance x from A, where diameter is d.

Diameter at C is given as
D−d 
d′ = d +  x
 l 
Cross-sectional area of the bar at C is
2
π 2 π  D−d 
A′ = d ' =  d +  x
4 4  l  
Elongation produced in the element is
P . dx
dl′ =
A' E
The elongation produced in the bar is found as
l l
4P dx 4Pl
dl = ∫ dl ' = ∫ 2 =
0 0
π E  D−d  π EDd
 d + l . x 
 Simple Stresses and Strains   17

Example 1.8 
Find the expression for the elongation of a conical bar of length l and base diameter d under its own
weight, if the density of its material is ρ and the modulus of elasticity E.
Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.15.

Fig. 1.15

Consider a section of thickness dx at a distance x from the apex of the cone.

Diameter of the bar at the section is
d
d′ = . x
l
Cross- sectional area at the section is
2 2
π 2 π d x
A′ = d′ = × 2
4 4 l
Weight of the cone below the section is
1
P′ =  Area  length  Density  g
3
1 π 2 
=  d′  × x × ρ × g
34 
π d2 ρ g 3
= x
12 l 2
The elongation produced in the length dx is given as
P′ . dx xρ g
dl′ = = dx
A′ E 3E
18   Strength of Materials

Hence, the total elongation of the bar is

l l
xρ g ρ gl 2
dl = ∫ dl ' = ∫
0 0
3E
dx =
6E
Example 1.9 
In Fig. 1.16, find the force P so that the net decrease in the length of two bars is
0.35 mm. Take,
Es = 200 kN/mm2, and
Eb = 100 kN/mm2.

Fig. 1.16

Solution:  Given, Length of the steel bar, l1 = 250 mm

Diameter of the steel bar, d1 = 40 mm
Length of the brass bar, l2 = 300 mm
Diameter of the brass bar, d2 = 20 mm
π 2 π
Cross-sectional area of steel bar, A 1 = d1 = × 402 = 1256.63 mm2
4 4
π π
Cross-sectional area of brass bar, A 2 = × d 22 = × 202 = 314.16 mm2
4 4
Force P is acting on both bar. Both bars will contract on the application of P and the net decrease
in length of two bars is the sum of two contractions.
0.35 = Contraction is steel bar + Contraction in brass bar
Pl1 Pl2
= +
A1 E1 A2 E2

P × 250 P × 300
= 3
+
1256.63 × 200 × 10 314.16 × 100 × 103

= 1.0544 × 10–5P
or    P = 33194.24 N Ans.
 Simple Stresses and Strains   19

Example 1.10 
A solid steel bar of diameter 60 mm and length 350 mm is placed inside an aluminium cylinder
of inside diameter 70 mm and outside diameter 110 mm. The steel bar is shorter than aluminium
cylinder by 0.25 mm. A compressive load of 1000 kN is applied on the assembly through two
cover plates on its both sides (Fig. 1.17). Find out the stresses induced in the cylinder and bar.
Take, E s = 200 kN/mm 2 and E Al = 70 kN/mm 2.

Fig. 1.17

Solution:  Given,
Diameter of steel bar, d = 60 mm
Length of steel bar, ls = 350 mm
Inside diameter of aluminium cylinder, di = 70 mm
Outside diameter of aluminum cylinder, do = 110 mm
Length of aluminium cylinder, lAl = (350 + 0.25) mm
= 350.25 mm
Let, stress in steel bar = s
Stress in aluminium cylinder = Al
Assume that the aluminium cylinder contracts by an amount dl on the application of the given
load.
20   Strength of Materials

Contraction in steel bar = (dl – 0.25) mm

π 2
Cross- sectional area of steel bar is As =d
4
π
                 = × 60 = 2827.43 mm2
2

4
Cross-sectional area of aluminium cylinder is found as
π 2
(d o − di2 )
AAl =
4
π
= (110 − 70 ) = 5654.86 mm2
2 2

4
Strain produced in aluminium cylinder is given as
dl
Al =
350.25
Strain produced in steel bar is given as
dl − 0.25
s =
350
Load on the cover plate is shared by steel bar and aluminium cylinder both.
1000  103 = s As + Al AAl
= Es ∈s As + EAl ∈Al AAl

dl − 0.25  dl
        = 200  103   3
  2827.43 + 70  10  350.25  5654.86
 350 
Solving for dl, we get
dl = 0.511 mm
Hence, stress in steel bar is
s = Es s
0.511 − 0.25
= 200  103  = 149.14 N/mm2 Ans.
350
and, stress in aluminium cylinder is

Al = EAl Al

0.511
= 70  103  = 102.12 N/mm2 Ans.
350.25
Example 1.11 
An assembly of a steel bar enclosed in an aluminium tube is compressed between two rigid parallel
plates by a force of 600 kN. The diameter of the steel bar is 60 mm, length of both steel bar and
aluminium tube is same (1m). The inside and the outside diameters of the aluminium tube are 70 mm
and 110 mm respectively. Find the stresses in the bar and the tube. Take,
 Simple Stresses and Strains   21

Es = 200kN/mm2
and EAl = 70kN/mm2.

Fig. 1.18

Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.18.

Given, Load on the assembly, P = 600  103 N
Diameter of steel bar, d = 60 mm
Inside diameter of aluminium tube, di = 70 mm
Outside diameter of aluminium tube, do = 110 mm
Let, s = Stress produced in steel bar
Al = Stress produced in aluminium tube
Cross-sectional area of steel bar is found as
π
A s =   d2
4
π
= × 602 = 2827.43 mm2
4
Cross-sectional area of aluminium tube is found as
π π
AAl = (do2 – di2) = (1102 – 702) = 5654.86 mm2
4 4
22   Strength of Materials

Strain produced in steel bar = Strain produced in aluminium tube

ss s
= Al
Es E Al
Es
or s = . s Al
E Al

200 × 103
= × s Al = 2.857 Al
70 × 103
Applied load is shared by both members.
s As + Al AAl = 600  103
     2.857Al  2827.43 + Al  5654.86 = 600  103       (On substituting  s)
On solving, we get Al = 43.69 N/mm2 Ans.
2
and s = 2.857  43.69 = 124.82 N/mm Ans.

Example 1.12
Two vertical rods of steel and copper each of length 2 m and diameter 10 mm, separated by a distance
of 1.5 m, are rigidly fixed to the ceiling (Fig. 1.19 ). The lower ends of the two rods are connected by
a horizontal cross piece. Where should a load of 15 kN be applied on the cross-piece so that it remains
horizontal after being loaded? Take,
Es = 200 kN/mm2
and Ec = 100 kN/mm2.

Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.19.

Fig. 1.19
 Simple Stresses and Strains   23

Let the load 15 kN is applied at a distance x from the center of the copper rod and Ps and Pc are
the loads shared by the steel and copper rod respectively.
Now 15  103 = Ps + Pc
= s As + c Ac ... (1)
π
But As = Ac =  102
4
= 78.54 mm2
Substituting the area in equation (1), we have

15  103 = (s + c) 78.54

or (s + c) = 190.98 N/mm2 ... (2)
Since the cross piece remains horizontal, hence equal strains are produced in both rods.
ss sc
=
Es Ec
Es
or s =  c
Ec

200 × 103
= × sc = 2c
100 × 103

Using this relation in equation (2), we get

2c + c = 190.98
or c = 63.66 N/mm2
and s = 2c
= 2  63.66
= 127.32 N/mm2
Load shared by the steel rod is
Ps = s As
= 10 kN
and Pc = (15 – 10) kN
= 5 kN
Taking moments of the loads about the centre of the copper rod, we have
Ps  1.5 = 15  x
24   Strength of Materials

10 × 1.5
or x = = 1m
15
Hence, the load on the cross-piece should be applied at a distance of 1m from the centre of the
copper rod. Ans.
Example 1.13 
Two steel rods and one brass rod, each of 30 mm diameter are arranged vertically to take a load of
25 kN as shown in Fig. 1.20. Take, Es = 200 kN/mm2 and Eb = 100 kN/mm2.
Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.20.

Fig. 1.20

Given,
Diameter of each rod, d = 30 mm

Length of steel rod, ls = 3 m

Length of brass rod, lb = 2.5 m

Area of steel rod, A = Area of brass rod
π 2
= ×d
4
π
= × 302 = 706.86 mm2
4
Let, s = Stress in steel rod
b = Stress in brass rod
s = Strain produced in steel rod
b = Strain produced in brass rod
When the load acts, all the three rods reduce in their lengths by an equal amount.
 Simple Stresses and Strains   25

Decrease in length of steel rod = Decrease in length of brass rod

s s ls s l
= b b
Es Eb
s s × 3 × 1000 s × 2.5 × 1000
= b
200 × 10 3
100 × 103
or s = 1.67b
Again, the given load is shared by the three rods.
2s . A + b . A = 25  103
( 2  1.67b + b)  706.86 = 25  103 (On substituting s)
On solving, we get
b = 8.16 N/mm2 Ans.
and s = 13.6 N/mm2 Ans.

Example 1.14 
The steel bolt shown in Fig. 1.21 has a thread pitch of 1.6 mm. If the nut is initially tightened up by
hand so as to cause no stress in the copper spacing tube, calculate the stress induced in the tube and
in the bolt, if a spanner is then used to turn the nut through 90°. Take, Ec and Es and 100 GPa and
209 GPa respectively.

Fig. 1.21

Solution:  Given,
Diameter of steel bolt, ds = 10 mm
Inside diameter of copper tube, di = 12 mm
Outside diameter of copper tube, d0 = 18 mm
Length of the tube = Length of the bolt,
l = 100 mm
26   Strength of Materials

Modulus of elasticity for steel, Es = 209 GPa

= 209 × 109 Pa
Modulus of elasticity for copper, Ec = 100 GPa
= 100 × 109 Pa
Pitch of the thread, p = 1.6 mm
π 2
Area of the bolt is A s = d s
4
π
= × 10 = 78.54 mm2
2

4
π 2 2
Area of the tube is A c = ( d 0 − d i )
4
π 2
= (18 − 12 ) = 141.37 mm2
2

4
The tensile force acting on the bolt is equal to the compressive force in the tube. At the same time,
the sum (Dl) of increase in the length of the bolt (Dls) and decrease in the length of the tube (Dlc) is
equal to the axial displacement of the nut.
90°
Dl = Dls + Dlc = p ×
360°
1
= 1.6 × = 0.4 mm
4
 1 1 
or Pl  +  = 0.4         (where P is force, tensile or compressive)
 As Es A c Ec 

 1 1 
or P × 100  −6 9
+ −6 9  = 0.4
 78.54 × 10 × 209 × 10 141.37 × 10 × 100 × 10 
Solving for P, we get
P = 30395.14 N
Hence, stress in the bolt is
P 30395.14
s s = =
As 78.54

= 387 N/mm2 Ans.

P 30395.14
and, stress in the tube is s c = =
Ac 141.37

= 215 N/mm2 Ans.

 Simple Stresses and Strains   27

Example 1.15 
Find the maximum permisible value of load P for the riveted joint shown in Fig. 1.22, if the allowable
yield shear strength of the rivet material is 100 MPa. Rivets are 20 mm in diameter.

Fig. 1.22

Solution:  Given,
Yield strength of rivet material,
sY = 100 MPa = 100 × 106 Pa
Diameter of the rivet, d = 20 mm
Number of rivets, n = 4
If F be the force in a rivet, and let the rivet be in single shear, then
P × 100 = n × F × 75 2
π
= 4 ×  d 2 × sY  × 75 2
4 
π −3 2 6
= 4 × (20 × 10 ) × 100 × 10 × 75 2
4
Hence, P = 88857.66 N Ans.

1.10 Thermal stress and strain

Materials expand on heating and contract on cooling. This heating and cooling changes the dimensions
of an object, thereby producing strain in the given material. Such strain is called thermal strain.
When the deformation due to temperature change is restricted, stresses are induced in the material.
Such stress is called thermal stress.

1.11 Thermal stress and strain in a simple bar

Consider a bar of length l fixed at its both ends (Fig. 1.23).
28   Strength of Materials

Fig. 1.23

Let, Tf = Final temperature

Ti = Initial temperature
T = Change in temperature = Tf – Ti
 = Coefficient of thermal expansion
E = Modulus of elasticity of bar material
dl = Change in length

Suppose that the bar is heated, hence its temperature rises. If the bar were free to expand on heat-
ing, then its length at the increased temperature is given as
lt = li (1 +  T) ... (1.21)
where lt = Length at t°C
li = Length at room temperature
lt − li
= T
li
or t = T ... (1.22)
where t = Thermal strain
lt − li
= From Hooke’s law
li
Stress s
E = = t
Strain ∈t
where t = Thermal stress induced in the bar
or t = t E
= E t (on substituting t) ... (1.23)

1.12 Thermal stress and strain in a compound bar

A compound or composite bar is made of two or more similar or different materials fixed at their ends
by welding or riveting. If the two materials are same, then the compound bar has equal expansion or
 Simple Stresses and Strains   29

contraction for both, otherwise different expansion/contraction will result. The material with higher
coefficient of thermal expansion expands more than the other.
Consider a compound bar consisting of two rods (1) and (2) (Fig. 1.24) is heated.
Let, l = Initial length of the compound bar (equal for both rods)
1 = Coefficient of thermal expansion of rod (1)
2 = Coefficient of thermal expansion of rod (2)
E1 = Modulus of elasticity of rod (1)
E2 = Modulus of elasticity of rod (2)

Fig. 1.24
A1 = Cross-sectional area of rod (1)
A2 = Cross-sectional area of rod (2)
T = Rise in temperature
dl = Elongation of compound bar

Assuming 2 > 1, it means that rod (2) will expand more as compared to rod (1). If the two rods
were free to expand, then
Increase in length of rod (1), dl1 = l1 T ... (1.24)
Increase in length of rod (2), dl2 = l2 T ... (1.25)
Since the two rods are connected at their ends, hence on heating, the compound bar will expand
to an intermediate position RW as shown in Fig.1.22. To get this intermediate position, the rod (1) is
being pulled by the rod (2) by a force P1 and the rod (2) is being pushed by the rod (1) by a force P2.
Because of no external force acting on the compound bar, the two forces are equal in magnitude.
Stress in rod (1) is given as
é (dl - dl1 )ù
st = ê ú E 1 ... (1.26)
1 ê l ú
And, the force is ë û
é dl - dl1 ù
P 1 = ê ú E .A ... (1.27)
êë l úû 1 1
30   Strength of Materials

Stress in rod (2) is given as

 dl − dl 
st =  2  E 2 ... (1.28)
2  l 
And, the force is
 dl − dl 
P2 =  2  E2.A2 ... (1.29)
 l 
But P 1 = P 2

or  dl − dl1  E A =  dl2 − dl  E A
 l  1 1  l  2 2
   

Using equations (1.24) and (1.25), we have

(dl – l1 T) E1 A1 = (l2 T – dl) E2 A2
dl (A1 E1 + A2 E2) = l T (2 A2 E2 + 1 A1 E1)

l ∆T (α1 A1 E1 + α 2 A2 E2 )
Hence, dl = ... (1.30)
A1 E1 + A2 E2
This is the expression for the elongation produced in the compound bar.
The thermal strain is given as
dl ∆T (α1 A1 E1 + α 2 A2 E2 )
t = = ... (1.31)
l A1 E1 + A2 E2
Example 1.16 
A 3 m bar is initially at a temperature of 24C. It is heated to raise its temperature to 80°C.
Estimate the expansion of the bar. If the expansion is not allowed, find the stress in the bar. Take,
E = 200 kN/mm 2 and  = 1.2 × 10 –5/°C.
Solution:  Given,
Initial length of the bar, l1 = 3 m = 3  103 mm
Initial temperature, Ti = 24°C
Final temperature, Tf = 80°C
The rise in temperature T is given as
T = Tf – Ti
= (80 – 24)°C = 56°C
The expansion of the bar is found by using equation (1.21).
dl = li  T
= 3 × 103  1.2 × 10–5  56
= 2.016 mm Ans.
 Simple Stresses and Strains   31

The thermal stress induced in the bar is given by equation (1.23).

t = E T
= 200 × 103  1.2  10–5  56
= 134.4 N/mm2 Ans.

Example 1.17 
A composite bar is fixed between two supports (Fig. 1.25). If the temperature of the bar is raised from
25°C to 75°C, find the stresses induced in each rod by assuming (a) if the supports do not yield and
(b) if the supports yield by 0.25 mm.
Take, E1 = 200 kN/mm2, 1 = 1.2  10–5/°C
E2 = 30 kN/mm2, 2 = 1.8  10–5/°C
E3 = 100 kN/mm2, 3 = 1.6 × 10–5/°C.

Fig. 1.25

Solution:  The composite bar AB consists of three rods (1), (2) and (3).
Given, Length of rod (1), l1 = 200 mm
Length of rod (2), l2 = 300 mm
Length of rod (3), l3 = 500 mm
Diameter of rod (1), d1 = 50 mm
Diameter of rod (2), d2 = 100 mm
Diameter of rod (3), d3 = 150 mm
Rise in temperature, T = Tf – Ti = 75 – 25 = 50°C
Cross-sectional areas of three rods are found as
A1 = /4 d21 = /4 (50)2 = 1963.5 mm2
A2 = /4 d22 = /4 (100)2 = 7853.98 mm2
A3 = /4 d23 = /4 (150)2 = 17671.46 mm2
32   Strength of Materials

If the composite bar were free to expand, then individual expansion of each rod are given as
dl1 = l1 1 T
= 200 × 1.2 × 10–5 × 50 = 0.12 mm
dl2 = l2 2 T
= 300 × 1.8 × 10–5 × 50 = 0.27 mm
dl3 = l3 3 T
= 500 × 1.6 × 10–5 × 50 = 0.4 mm
Hence, the total expansion of the composite bar would have been
dl = dl1 + dl2 + dl3 = 0.12 + 0.27 + 0.4 = 0.79 mm ... (1)
(a) When the supports do not yield, the expansion of the composite bar is prevented and hence,
compressive stresses are induced in it.
Let, P = Compressive force in composite bar
= Compressive force in each rod
Stresses, strains and elongations in the rods (1), (2) and (3) are given as
rod (1) rod (2) rod (3)
P P P
Stress  1 = 2 =  3 =
A1 A2 A3
P P P
= N/mm2 = N/mm2 = N/mm2
1963.5 7853.98 17671.46

P P P
Strain  1 =  2 =  3 =
A1 E1 A2 E2 A3 E3
P P P
= 8 = 8 =
3.927 ´10 2.356 ´10 1.767 ´109
Elongation dl'1 = 1 l1 dl'2 = 2 l2 dl'3 = 3 l3
200 P 300 P 500 P
= = =
3.927 ´108 2.356 ´108 1.767 ´109
Total elongation of the composite bar is
dl'1 + dl'2 + dl'3 = dl
200 P 300 P 500 P
   8
+ 8
+ = 0.79 (Using equation (1)
3.927 ´10 2.356 ´10 1.767 ´109
2.06568  10–6P = 0.79
Solving for P, we get   P = 382454.58 N
 Simple Stresses and Strains   33

Hence, stresses induced in each rod are the following:

P 382454.58
 1 = = = 194.78 N/mm2 Ans.
A1 1963.5
P 382454.58
 2 = = = 48.7 N/mm2 Ans.
A2 7853.98

P 382454.58
and  3 = = = 21.64 N/mm2 Ans.
A3 17671.46

(b) When the supports at the ends yield by 0.25 mm, the net elongation produced is given as
dl = (dl1 + dl2 + dl3) – 0.25
= 0.79 – 0.25 = 0.54 mm
Hence, 2.06568  10–6 P = 0.54
Solving for P, we get P = 261424.65 N
Stresses in the rods are:
261424.65
 1 = = 133.14 N/mm2 Ans.
1963.5
261424.65
2 = = 33.28 N/mm2 Ans.
7853.98
261424.65
and 3 = = 14.79 N/mm2 Ans.
17671.46
Hence, in both cases, maximum stress is induced in rod (1) and minimum stress in rod (3).
Example 1.18 
A weight of 900 kN is supported by three pillars of cross-section 600 mm 2 each (Fig. 1.26). The
pillars are so adjusted that at a temperature of 20°C each pillar carries equal load. Find the stress in
each pillar at 150°C. Take,

Fig. 1.26
34   Strength of Materials

E1 = 200 kN/mm2, 1 = 1.6 × 10–5/°C

E2 = 30 kN/mm2, 2 = 1.2 × 10–5/°C
E3 = 100 kN/mm2, 3 = 1.8 × 10–5/°C.

Solution:  Given,
Load to be supported, P = 900 kN = 900 × 103 N
Cross-sectional area of each rod
= A1 = A2 = A3 = A
= 600 mm2
Initial temperature, Ti = 20°C
Final temperature, Tf = 150°C
Rise in temperature, T = ( 150 – 20)°C = 130°C

On heating, the pillars will try to expand but the weight kept on them will prevent their expansion,
thereby inducing stresses in them.
Initially i.e., at 20°C, stresses in each pillar are same, given by
900 ´103
1 = 2 = 3 =  = = 500N/mm2 (Compressive)
3´ 600
Because of equal length and equal weight shared by each pillar, equal strains are produced in them,
say . But because of heating, strain in each pillar changes and takes a new value.
Net strain in rod (1) =  – 1 T
Net strain in rod (2) =  – 2 T
Net strain in rod (3) =  – 3 T

Due to heating, each pillar carries some different load but the total load remains the same. Hence
( – 1 T) A1 E1 + ( – 2 T) A2 E2 + ( – 3 T) A3 E3 = 900 × 103
[( – 1 T) E1 + ( – 1 T) E2+ ( – 3 T) E3 ] A = 900 × 103
(Because the pillars are of equal cross-sectional areas)
or      [( – 1.6 × 10–5 × 130)× 200 × 103 + ( – 1.2 × 10–5 × 130) × 30 × 103
+ ( – 1.8 × 10–5 × 130) × 100  103] × 600
3
= 900 × 10
Solving for , we get
 = 6.65 × 10–3
Hence, stress in pillar (1) is
1 = ( – 1 T) E1
= (6.65 × 10–3 – 1.6 × 10–5 × 130) × 200 × 103 = 914 N/mm2 Ans.
 Simple Stresses and Strains   35

Stress in pillar (2) is

2 = ( – 2 T) E2
= (6.65 × 10–3 – 1.2 × 10–5 × 130) × 30 × 103 = 152.7 N/mm2 Ans.
Stress in pillar (3) is
3 = ( –  3 T) E3
= (6.65 × 10–3 – 1.8 × 10–5 × 130) × 100  103 N/mm2
= 431 N/mm2 Ans.
All stresses are compressive in nature.

Example 1.19 
A steel bolt of diameter 10 mm passes through a brass tube of internal diameter 15 mm and external
diameter 25 mm (Fig. 1.27).

Fig. 1.27

The bolt is tightened by a nut so that the length of tube is reduced by 1.5 mm. If the temperature
of the assembly is raised by 40°C, estimate the stresses in the bolt and the tube before and after heat-
ing. Take,
Es = 200 kN/mm2, s = 1.2  10–5/°C
Eb = 100 kN/mm2, b = 1.9  10–5/°C.

Solution:  Refer Fig. 1.27.

Given,
Diameter of steel bolt, d = 10 mm
Internal diameter of brass tube, di = 15 mm
External diameter of brass tube, d0 = 25 mm
Length of brass tube, l = 2 m = 2  1000 = 2000 mm
Rise in temperature, T = 40°C
36   Strength of Materials

Cross-sectional area of steel bolt, As = /4 d2

= /4  102 = 78.54 mm2
Cross-sectional area of brass tube is found as
Ab = /4 (d02 – di2)
= /4 (252 – 152) = 314.16 mm2
During tightening of nut on the bolt, the stresses produced in bolt and tube are tensile and compres-
sive respectively. The tensile force in the bolt is equal to the compressive force in the tube, because
no external force is acting on the assembly.
s As = b Ab
s × 78.54 = b  314.16
or s = 4b

Stresses before heating

Reduction in tube length, l = 1.5 mm
s bl
But l =
Eb
s b × 2000
1.5 =
100 × 103
or b = 75 N/mm2 Ans.
2
and s = 4b = 300 N/mm Ans.
Stresses after heating
When the assembly is heated, on account of higher value of b , brass tube will expand more. But due
to prevention of expansion, thermal stresses are induced in the assembly.
Total strain in the assembly before heating
= Net strain produced in the assembly after heating
b + s = (b – s) T
sb ss
+ = (b – s) T
Eb Es
sb 4s b
3 + = (1.9 – 1.2) × 10–5 × 40
100 × 10 200 × 103
Solving for b, we get
b = 9.34 N/mm2 (Compressive) Ans.
2
and s = 4 × 9.34 = 37.36 N/mm (Tensile) Ans.
 Simple Stresses and Strains   37

Example 1.20 
A 5 m circular rod of diameter 100 mm at one end and 200 mm at other end is fixed between two
supports (Fig. 1.28). Determine the stress induced, if the temperature of the rod is raised by 70°C.
Take, E = 200 kN/mm2 and  = 1.2 × 10–5/°C.

Fig. 1.28
Solution:   Refer Fig. 1.28. AB is the circular rod of length l.
Given,
Diameter at A, D1 = 200 mm
Diameter at B, D2 = 100 mm
If ends of the rod were not fixed, then on heating, the rod length would have increased by dl, given
by
dl = l T ... (1)
If a compressive force P is applied, the contraction achieved is given by
4 Pl
dl = ... (2)
π ED1 D2
Equating two equations (1) and (2), we have
4 Pl
l T =
π ED1 D2
α ∆T π E D1 D2
or P =
4
1.2 × 10−5 × 70 × π × 200 × 103 × 200 × 100
= = 5.27 × 106 N
4
The maximum stress is induced at the smaller end, given by
P
max =
Cross-sectional area at B
P 5.27 × 106
= =
(π / 4) D22 π / 4 × 1002
= 671 N/mm2 (Compressive) Ans.
38   Strength of Materials

Example 1.21 
Determine the temperature rise necessary to induce buckling in a 1 m long circular rod of diameter
40 mm as shown in Fig. 1.29. Assume the rod to be pinned at its ends, and the coefficient of thermal
expansion as 20 × 10–6/°C. The rod is heated uniformly. Take, E = 200 GPa.

Fig. 1.29
Solution:   Given,
Length of the rod, l = 1 m
Diameter of the rod, d = 40 mm = 40 × 10–3 m
Coefficient of thermal expansion,
a = 20 × 10–6/°C
The cross-sectional area of the rod is given as
π 2 π
A = d = × (40 × 10–3)2 = 1.256 × 10–3 m2
4 4
The thermal strain is given as
t = a DT (DT being rise in temperature)
= 20 × 10–6 DT
The thermal stress is given as
st = t ·E
= 20 × 10–6 DT · E

A force P equal to st ·A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the rod, is acting on the rod, if
its ends are prevented from expansion. According to Euler's formula, when both ends of the rod are
hinged, the critical load is given as
π 2 EI
P =
l2
π
π 2E × × (40 × 10−3 ) 4
64
or 20 × 10–6 DT · E × 1.256 × 10–3 =
12

Solving for DT, we get DT = 49.37°C Ans.

 Simple Stresses and Strains   39

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of

(a) Longitudinal strain to lateral strain (b) Lateral strain to longitudinal strain
(c) Axial stress to shear stress (d) Axial stress to bending stress.
2. The maximum possible theoretical value of poisson’s ratio is
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.35 (c) 0.50 (d) 1.0.
3. For a 12 mm diameter steel rod test specimen, the suitable gauge length is
(a) 24 mm (b) 36 mm (c) 72 mm (d) 60 mm.
4. The stress produced on a surface normal to the load applied is called
(a) Shear stress (b) Bending stress (c) Normal stress (d) None of these.
5. The deformation of a uniform section bar subjected to an axial pull P is given as
Pl 2Pl Pl Pl .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
AE AE 2 AE 3 AE
6. Tensile load results in
(a) Contraction (b) Elongation (c) Bending (d) Twisting.
7. Factor of safety is the ratio of
(a) Shear stress to Working stress (b) Bending stress to Shear stress
(c) Ultimate stress to Working stress (d) Working stress to Ultimate stress.
8. The relationship between E and G is
(a) E = 2G ( 1 – v) (b) E = 2G ( 1 + v)
(c) E = 2G ( 1 – 2v) (d) E = 2 G ( 1 + 2v).
9. The relationship between E and K is
(a) E = 3 K (1 – 2v) (b) E = 3 K (1 + 2v)
(c) E = 2 K ( 1 – 2v) (d) E = 2 K ( 1 + 2v).
10. The relationship among E, G and K is
3KG 9 KG 5KG 9 EK .
(a) E = (b) E = (c) E = (d) G =
2K + G 3K + G 2K + G 3E + K
11. Shear stress
(a) acts normal to the surface (b) acts tangential to the surface
(c) is equal to the tensile stress (d) is equal to the compressive stress.
12. Modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of
(a) Shear strain to Volumetric strain (b) Shear stress to Shear strain
(c) Normal stress to Shear strain (d) Normal stress to Linear strain.
13. If brass has higher coefficient of thermal expansion than steel, it means that
(a) both brass and steel have equal expansion
(b) steel expands more than brass
40   Strength of Materials

(c) brass expands more than steel

(d) expansion is not related to coefficient of thermal expansion.
14. Thermal expansion of a material varies
(a) directly proportional to coefficient of thermal expansion
(b) inversely proportional to coefficient of thermal expansion
(c) directly proportional to the square of coefficient of thermal expansion
(d) none of these.
15. The thermal stress depends on
(a) temperature rise/fall and modulus of elasticity of the material
(b) coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction and temperature rise/fall
(c) temperature rise/fall, coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction and modulus of elasticity
of material
(d) none of these.
16. During the tightening of a nut on a bolt, the stress induced in the bolt is
(a) Compressive (b) Shear (c) Tensile (d) Bending.
17. The length of a bar at 15°C is 150 mm. Its length at 50°C, if the coefficient of thermal expansion
of its material is 1.2  10–5/°C, is given by
(a) 151.02 mm (b) 150.063 mm (c) 150.036 mm (d) 150.36 mm.

ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (c)
17. (b).
 Simple Stresses and Strains   41

EXERCISES

1. A 3 m solid rectangular bar of cross-section 10 mm  15 mm is subjected to a compressive force

of 150 kN. What is the change in length of the bar? Also find the strain and stress produced in
the bar. Take E = 2  105 N/mm2.
(Ans.  15 mm (decrease), 0.005, 1000 N /mm2).
2. A square section rod of length l and side D at one end tapers to square section of side d at the
other end. Find the elongation produced when subjected to an axial pull P.
æ ö
çç Ans. Pl ÷÷ .
çè EDd ÷ø
3. A 1.5 m circular rod tapers uniformly from 40 mm diameter at one end to 20 mm diameter
at other end. Find the elongation produced if it is subjected to an axial pull of 200 kN.
Take, E = 2  10 5 N/mm 2.
(Ans.  2.39 mm).

4. A rod rigidly fixed at its left end consists of three bars of unequal diameters (Fig, 1.30). Find
the stress in each bar of the rod.Take, E = 2  105 N/mm2.

Fig. 1.30
(Ans.  AB = 63.66 N/mm2
BC = 39.78 N/mm2
CD = 70.73 N/mm2).
5. A 3m steel rod of diameter 25 mm is placed inside a brass tube of the same length and inside and
outside diameters of 25 mm and 35 mm respectively (Fig. 1.31). What is the deformation of the
rod and the tube when a force of 50 kN is applied on them through a rigid plate? Take,
Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
and Eb = 1 × 105 N/mm2.
42   Strength of Materials

Fig. 1.31

(Ans.  1.032 mm, deformations in the rod and the tube are equal).

6. Two cylindrical rods one of steel and the other of brass are joined at D and restrained by rigid
supports at A and B. For the loading given in Fig. 1.32 and assuming Es = 2  105 N/mm2 and
Eb = 1.05  105 N/mm2, find (a) the reactions at A and B and (b) the deflection of point D.

Fig. 1.32

(Ans.  (a) RA = 62.8 kN (), RB = 37.2 kN ()

(b) 0.0463 mm ()).

7. A composite bar made of brass and steel is fixed between two supports (Fig. 1.33). If the
temperature is increased by 80°C, find the stresses induced in the steel and the brass section
assuming (a) if the supports do not yield and (b) if the supports yield by 0.15 mm. Take,

Fig. 1.33
 Simple Stresses and Strains   43

Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
Eb = 1 × 105 N/mm2
s = 1.2 × 10–5 N/°C
b = 1.9 × 10–5 N/°C.
(Ans. (a) 352 N/mm2, 88 N/mm2
(b) 259.7 N/mm2, 64.92 N/mm2).
8. A composite bar made of two steel sections is rigidly fixed at the top. The gap between its lower
end and the rigid support is 0.2 mm (Fig. 1.34). Estimate the stresses in the two sections, if the
bar is heated through 80°C. Take,

Fig. 1.34

E = 2 ×105 N/mm2 and  = 1.2 × 10–5/°C.

(Ans.  61.42 N/mm2, 245.71 N/mm2).
9. A steel rod of 20 mm diameter passes through a brass tube of 30 mm inside diameter and
40 mm outside diameter. Two nuts one on each side are tightened until a stress of 10 N/mm 2 is
induced in the rod. Find the stresses in the rod and the tube if the assembly is heated through
60°C. Take,
Es = 2  105 N/mm2, s =1.2  10–5/°C
Eb = 0.8  105 N/mm2, b= 1.9  10–5/°C.

(Ans.  44.58 N/mm2 (tensile), 25.47 N/mm2 (compressive)).

10. A 1.5 m circular bar of tapered section is rigidly fixed at both ends (Fig. 1.35). Find the
maximum stress induced in the bar if its temperature is increased by 50°C. Take,
E = 2  105 N/mm2 and  = 1.2  10–5/°C.
44   Strength of Materials

Fig. 1.35

(Ans.  max = 320 N/mm2 (compressive)).

11. A compound bar made of a steel rod and a brass rod is rigidly fixed at the two ends (Fig. 1.36).
Find the stresses in the two rods if the assembly is heated through 50°C. Take,
Es = 2  105 N/mm2, s = 1.2  10–5/°C
Eb = 1  105 N/mm2, b = 1.9  10–5/°C.

Fig. 1.36
(Ans.  Stress in brass = 25.45 N/mm2
Stress in steel = 12.72 N/mm2).

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