applied

sciences
Article
Research on Dynamic Modeling and Transition Flight
Strategy of VTOL UAV
Chunyang Wang , Zhou Zhou * and Rui Wang
College of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China;
wangchunyang@mail.nwpu.edu.cn (C.W.); wangrui@nwpu.edu.cn (R.W.)
* Correspondence: zhouzhou@nwpu.edu.cn




Received: 8 October 2019; Accepted: 15 November 2019; Published: 16 November 2019


Featured Application: The new vertical take-off and landing UAV meets the requirements of
vertical take-off and landing and can cruise at high speed, which lays a good foundation for
future military and civil fields.

Abstract: A vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) can meet both
VTOL and horizontal flight performance, but how to achieve a safe and stable transition is a research
focus of this type of aircraft. According to the overall configuration characteristics of VTOL UAV,
aerodynamic models of lift fan, lift duct and induced wing surface of VTOL UAV were established.
Three flight modes of induced VTOL UAV are studied, including hover, transition and horizontal
flight. The method of longitudinal flight balance of UAV in transition mode is also studied. Finally, a
UAV is taken as an example to conduct the research of transition flight mode balancing and flight
simulation with the method presented in this paper. The results show that the proposed method can
reasonably give the control quantity and longitudinal attitude of UAV in the whole transition mode,
so that the UAV can achieve a steady transition flight.

Keywords: aerodynamic model; dynamic model; transition flight; trim method; transition strategy
calculation case

1. Introduction

1.1. Background
The induced VTOL UAV is a new type of UAV. It combines performances of both helicopter
and fixed-wing aircraft, such as vertical take-off/landing, air hovering and low altitude and low
speed of helicopter, and high-altitude cruise of fixed-wing aircraft. With excellent performance
and good economy, it plays an important role in both military and civil fields and has broad
development prospects.

1.2. Formulation of the Problem

There are three main flight modes of the UAV: take-off/landing mode, horizontal flight mode and
transition flight mode. During the transition, the aircraft configuration changes constantly, and various
control units work together to meet the requirements of smooth flight. In this process, the reasonable
distribution of power and the reasonable range of speed must be considered, so as to ensure that the
lift force of the UAV meets the flight requirements, and the flight attitude in the process is continuously
changing. Therefore, transition flight mode is the most complex flight mode of VTOL UAV. In order
to ensure the safety of transition flight, it is necessary to determine the transition flight corridor of
the aircraft so that the aircraft can safely transition in the transition flight corridor. In addition, the

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937; doi:10.3390/app9224937 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 2 of 19

establishment of the dynamic mathematical model of the variable configuration aircraft, and how to
accurately describe its transition flight motion, are also the focus of the study [1–3].

1.3. Literature Survey

Due to the special configuration of the induced lift aircraft, there are few studies in this aspect.
There are many studies on vertical take-off/landing, including aerodynamic characteristics calculation,
dynamic modeling, and flight performance. J. Geordon Leishman and Shreyas Ananthan [4,5] studied
the theoretical calculation model of the coaxial dual rotor paired lift fan, established the aerodynamic
calculation model of the coaxial dual rotor based on the blade element momentum theory, and
studied the optimal blade matching of the upper and lower rotors of the coaxial dual rotor through the
theoretical model. B.Yuksek and A.Vuruskan [6] established a six-degree-of-freedom nonlinear equation
for lift-fan-type vertical take-off and landing UAV and carried out simulation based on the established
mathematical model. Taking tilt-rotor aircraft as the research object, Shi Xiaoming [7] modeled the
longitudinal aircraft and established the aerodynamic model of the aerodynamic components of the
aircraft and carried out the balancing and stability analysis of the transition stage according to the
established longitudinal model. Taking tilt-rotor aircraft as the object, Cao Yunyun [8] studied the
determination method of tilt-rotor corridor envelope, established a dynamic model, and analyzed
and calculated the case according to the model. According to the characteristics of the aircraft, the
control strategy of tilting rotor is studied to meet the requirements of hover, low speed flight and
transition flight mode. Wan Huafang [9] established the dynamic theory model of tilt-rotor aircraft
and conducted simulation research on the transition corridor. These works focused on the dynamics
modeling and transition corridor research of tilt-rotor aircraft and lift fan aircraft. Thus, the dynamic
modeling and transition corridor of the UAVs will be investigated. Zhang Juqiang [10] proposed an
adaptive fuzzy-based global sliding mode control strategy for quadrotor UAVs in robust trajectory
tracking against parameter uncertainties and external disturbances. Sepehr P. Khaligh [11] provided
an inverse kinematic solution for the main rotor actuating mechanism of a small-scale helicopter that
includes a four-point swashplate system and a Bell–Hiller mixer and the tail rotor actuating mechanism
are derived using an approach that is suitable for real-time control applications.

1.4. Scope and Contribution of This Study

In this paper, aiming at the problem of longitudinal flight state and transition flight balance of
the induced lift aircraft, a parameterized aerodynamic model suitable for longitudinal flight of the
induced lift aircraft is firstly established, including the aerodynamic model of the whole machine, the
aerodynamic model of the lift fan and the aerodynamic model of the booster device which uses the
blade-element moment theory (BEMT). On the basis of this model, a mathematical model of UAV
longitudinal motion is established by using a six degrees of freedom method, and the flight strategy
of induced lift vehicle in longitudinal flight is studied to meet the requirements of vertical take-off,
transition and horizontal flight. Finally, a certain type of UAV is taken as an example to balance various
flight modes. The method is applied to the case, then the flight simulation is carried out, and the
feasible flight strategy of transition flight is obtained.

1.5. Organization of the Paper

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In the Section 2, the aerodynamic models of lift fan,
lift duct, induced wing surface and wing are established. In the Section 3, the dynamic model of the
lift fan, the dynamic model of the lift duct and the mathematical model of the longitudinal motion of
the whole machine are established. In the Section 4, balancing calculation is carried out for the hover
and transition states of VTOL UAV. In the Section 5, a certain type of UAV is taken as an example
to obtain the stable transition flight strategy. The discussion and conclusion are given in Sections 6
and 7, respectively.
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 3 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20

2. 2.
Aerodynamic Expression
Aerodynamic Expression
The
Themain
main aerodynamic
aerodynamic components
components ofof
the UAVs
the UAVsinclude
includethe contra
the contraliftlift
fan, the
fan, theleft and
left andright liftlift
right
ducts, the left and right induced wing surfaces and the main wing. In this paper,
ducts, the left and right induced wing surfaces and the main wing. In this paper, the aerodynamic the aerodynamic
modeling
modelingofofthe
thewhole
wholemachine
machineadopts
adoptsthe
thebody
bodycoordinate
coordinate system.
system. The
The origin
origin of of the
the axis
axis is
is located
locatedat
atthe
thecenter
center
of of gravity
gravity position
position of UAV.
of the the UAV. The X-axis
The X-axis points
points in front in front
of the noseof along
the nose along the
the symmetrical
symmetrical plane of the aircraft structure, and Y-axis is perpendicular to the X-axis
plane of the aircraft structure, and Y-axis is perpendicular to the X-axis to the right of the body, to the right and
of
the body,
the andisthe
Z-axis Z-axis is determined
determined downward downward by the right-hand
by the right-hand rule, as
rule, as shown in shown
Figure in 1. Figure 1. Theof
The model
model of aerodynamic parts is based on the body coordinate system of
aerodynamic parts is based on the body coordinate system of aerodynamic parts. aerodynamic parts.

Figure 1. Body coordinate system.

2.1. Aerodynamic Model of Lift Fan Figure 1. Body coordinate system.

ComparedModel
2.1. Aerodynamic with the isolated
of Lift Fan propeller, the ducted propeller produces larger tension at the same
power and the same diameter, that is, the diameter required to produce the same tension at the same
powerCompared with
is smaller. The themechanism
isolated propeller,
of ducted thepropeller
ducted propeller
causing this produces larger
difference tension
is as at the same
follows:
power and the same diameter, that is, the diameter required to produce the same tension at the same
1. The presence of duct changes the slipstream state of the propeller downstream, such as increasing
power is smaller. The mechanism of ducted propeller causing this difference is as follows:
the slipstream area, and reducing the slipstream velocity and slipstream energy loss, so that more
1. The presence
kinetic energy ofbehind
duct changes the slipstream
the propeller state of into
disc was converted the pressure
propellerenergy.
downstream, such as
2. increasing the slipstream area, and reducing the slipstream velocity
The duct wall improves the turbulence characteristics of the propeller tip and reduces and slipstream energy loss,
the flow
soloss
thataround
more kinetic
it. energy behind the propeller disc was converted into pressure energy.
2. 3. The A duct
largewall
zoneimproves
with low the turbulence
pressure characteristics
is formed at the leadingof theedge propeller tip and
of the inlet of thereduces the flow
duct, generating
loss around it.
additional tension.
3. A large zone with low pressure is formed at the leading edge of the inlet of the duct, generating
The coaxial
additional contra rotating lift fans are a pair of lift fans installed in tandem and rotating around
tension.
the same axis with opposite direction. The coaxial contra-rotating lift fan has the following advantages:
The coaxial contra rotating lift fans are a pair of lift fans installed in tandem and rotating around
1. Due to coaxial rotation, the reaction torque from the engine to the aircraft is reduced to zero.
the same axis with opposite direction. The coaxial contra-rotating lift fan has the following
2. Under the condition of Vmax , the total efficiency of coaxial propeller is higher than that of
advantages:
non-coaxial propeller with the same number of blades with the same flight conditions (V0 , H, n,
1. Due to coaxial
N and D). rotation, the reaction torque from the engine to the aircraft is reduced to zero.
2. 3. Under the condition
In high-speed of the
flight, Vmaxefficiency
, the total ofefficiency of coaxial is
coaxial propeller propeller is higher
higher than that of than
thethat
twoofisolated
non-
coaxial propeller with
propellers with the same task.the same number of blades with the same flight conditions (V 0 , H, n, N
4. and D).
The take-off performance (in-situ tension) of a coaxial propeller is better than that of a
3. In single
high-speed
propeller.flight, the efficiency of coaxial propeller is higher than that of the two isolated
propellers with the same task.
At present, there is no coaxial dual-rotor aerodynamic theory with duct for reference. Based on
4. The take-off performance (in-situ tension) of a coaxial propeller is better than that of a single
the mathematical model of coaxial dual-rotors, the method of duct tension factor q is introduced to
propeller.
give the dynamic model of coaxial dual-rotor ducted fan.
AtThe
present,
Blade there
Element is no coaxialTheory
Moment dual-rotor
(BEMT)aerodynamic theory
[12,13] is used with duct
to calculate theforlift,
reference.
power and Based on
moment
the mathematical model of coaxial dual-rotors, the method of duct tension
of the coaxial double-rotor. The dimensionless form proposed by NASA [14] is adopted to calculate factor q is introduced to
give
thethe dynamic model of coaxial dual-rotor ducted fan.
formula:
The Blade Element Moment Theory (BEMT) T = ρA(ΩR )2 CTis used to calculate the lift, power and
[12,13]
moment of the coaxial double-rotor. The dimensionless P = ρA(ΩR)3form CP proposed
, by NASA [14] is adopted to(1)
2
calculate the formula: M = ρAR(ΩR) CM
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 20

T =  A ( R ) CT
2

P =  A ( R ) CP
3
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 , (1)
4 of 19
M =  AR ( R ) CM
2

The
Theflow
flowmodel
modelofofthe
thecoaxial
coaxialdual rotor
dual system
rotor systemis shown
is shown in the Figure
in the 2. The
figure basic
2. The assumption
basic assumption is
that the area of the propeller disk of the lower rotor works in the wake area of the upper rotor,
is that the area of the propeller disk of the lower rotor works in the wake area of the upper rotor, and and the
slipstream velocity
the slipstream of theofupper
velocity rotor rotor
the upper has a has
maximum
a maximumchange in the in
change venathecontracta before before
vena contracta the wakethe
ofwake
the upper rotor enters the rotor disk. The contraction of the wake is based on the ideal fluid
of the upper rotor enters the rotor disk. The contraction of the wake is based on the ideal fluid flow
hypothesis or supported
flow hypothesis by specific
or supported experimental
by specific data [4,5,15–17].
experimental data [4,5,15–17].

Figure2.2. Flow model

Figure model used
usedfor
forthe
theBEMT
BEMT (Blade
(Blade Element
Element Moment
Moment Theory)
Theory) analysis
analysis of a of a coaxial
coaxial rotor
rotor system. system.

The
TheBEMT
BEMTmodelmodelassumes
assumesthat
thatthe
theslipstream
slipstream(outflow)
(outflow)of ofthe
theupper
upperrotor
rotoraffects
affectsthe
theslipstream
slipstream
(inflow)
(inflow)ofofthe
thelower
lowerrotor,
rotor,while
whilethe
thelower
lowerrotor
rotordoes
doesnot
notaffect
affectinflow
inflowofofthe
theupper
upperrotor.
rotor.The
Thetheory
theory
ofofblade element momentum can be generalized with the axial free inflow velocity, which
blade element momentum can be generalized with the axial free inflow velocity, which is generally is generally
denotedasasV∞
denoted V. For
. Forthe
theupper
upperrotor
rotorofofthethe
coaxial system,
coaxial system,momentum
momentum theory principles
theory cancan
principles be used to
be used
find incremental thrust from the mass flow rate through the annulus and the induced velocity there.
to find incremental thrust from the mass flow rate through the annulus and the induced velocity
Mass flow velocity through rotor annulus is expressed as:
there. Mass flow velocity through rotor annulus is expressed as:
.
ρ(=
dm =dm V∞ (+ u ) dA
Vvu+)vdA = 2πρ (V(∞
= 2 V++vvuu ))ydy,
ydy , (2)
(2)

where 2 ydy so
wheredAdA==2πydy, , sothe
theincrease
increaseininthrust
thrustover
overthe
theannular
annulararea
areaisisasasfollows:
follows:

dTu =dT2ρ
u ( ∞
(Vvu+)vvuu dA
=V2 + ) vu dA
= 4πρ (V(V
= 4 + vu ))vvu ydy.
∞+ vu u
ydy . (3)
(3)
To convert the thrust into a compiled form, the above equation can be written as
To convert the thrust into a compiled form, the above equation can be written as

dTu 2ρ(V∞ + vu )vu dA 2ρ(V∞ + vu )vu (2πydy)

dCTu = = = = 4λλu rdr, (4)
ρ(πR2 )(ΩR)2 ρπR2 (ΩR)2 ρπR2 (ΩR)2
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 5 of 19

where λ = v/ΩR, λu = vu /ΩR, λ∞ = V∞ /ΩR, v = V∞ + vu ; and r = y/R stands for dimensionless

radial position. Therefore, the tension coefficient of the annular area can be written as

dCTu = 4λλu rdr = 4λ(λ − λ∞ )rdr, (5)

Similarly, the power coefficient of the annular area can be expressed as

dCPu = λdCTu = 4λ2 λu rdr = 4λ2 (λ − λ∞ )rdr. (6)

The tip loss in BEMT can be calculated by means of Prandtl tip-loss equation, and the expression
of the correction factor F of tip loss is as follows [18]

F = (2/π) cos−1 (exp(− f )), (7)

where f is given through the number of blades Nb and the radial position r of the blade element, and
the expression is as follows !
Nb 1 − r
f = , (8)
2 rφ
where φ = λ(r)/r is the inflow angle under the assumption of small angle. Then the tension coefficient
of the annular area modified by Prandtl propeller tip loss equation is expressed as

dCT = 4Fλλu rdr. (9)

According to the classical blade element theory, the tension generated by the same annular area
on the paddle disc is expressed as

1 1 σu Clα  2 
dCTu = σu Cl r2 dr = σu Clα (θu − φ)r2 dr = θu r − λr dr, (10)
2 2 2
where, θu refers to the blade pitch of the upper rotor, which may include the zero lift angle of attack of
the blade section, and σu is the degree of disc consolidation. By comparing the tension coefficients
obtained by the classical blade element theory and the blade element momentum theory, it can be
obtained to be
σu Clα  2 
θu r − λr = 4Fλ(λ − λ∞ )r, (11)
2
Convert this into a quadratic equation of λ

σu Clα σu Clα
 
λ2 + − λ∞ λ − θu r = 0, (12)
8F 8F

This equation has the solution

s
2
σu Clα λ∞ σu Clα σu Clα λ∞
  
λ(r, λ∞ ) = − + θu r − − , (13)
16F 2 8F 16F 2

where λu = λ − λ∞ . The above equation can be solved numerically on a series of discrete elements of
the paddle disk.
The same mathematical principle can be applied to the analysis of the lower rotor as well.
According to the previous hypothesis, a part of the lower rotor works in the slipstream area of the
upper rotor. In an ideal state, the vena contracta can be obtained according to the contraction of the
flow tube Ac = πa2 R2 , where a = 0.707, Ac /A = 0.5. In this particular case, the inner area of the lower
rotor encounters incoming contracted differential streamtubes with velocity V∞ + vu /a2 .
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 6 of 19

With the same calculation method as that of the upper rotor, the velocity of the lower rotor in the
area (r ≤ a) affected by the slipstream of the upper rotor can be obtained
s
!2
σl Clα λ∞ + λu /a2 σl Clα σu Clα λ∞ + λu /a2
!
λ(r, λ∞ ) = − + θl r − − , (14)
16F 2 8F 16F 2

where θl refers to the blade pitch of the lower rotor, λl = λ − λ∞ .

For the area (r > a) that is not affected by the slipstream of the upper rotor, the velocity is calculated
as follows s
σl Clα λ∞ 2 σl Clα σl Clα λ∞
   
λ(r, λ∞ ) = − + θ r− − , (15)
16F 2 8F l 16F 2
The above three equations give the approximate calculation method of velocity of each discrete
radial position of upper and lower rotor at any blade pitch, blade torsion and airfoil section.
According to the above calculation formula of tension coefficient and flow velocity, the tension,
power and torque of the rotor can be obtained by numerical integration of each rotor disc. The tension
coefficient of the upper rotor is expressed as follows

r=1
Z Z1
1
CTu = dCTu = σu Cl r2 dr, (16)
2
r=0 0

The power coefficient is expressed as follows

r=1
Z Z1
1
CPu = λu dCTu + σu Cd r3 dr, (17)
2
r=0 0

where Cd is the sectional profile drag coefficient. In approximate calculation, Cd can be replaced by the
zero-rise resistance coefficient Cd0 . In general, for a specific airfoil blade, the drag coefficient needs to
be obtained by looking up the table.
According to the relationship between the dimensionless power coefficient and the torque
coefficient, the expression of the torque coefficient can be obtained as follows

CMu = CPu /2π, (18)

For the upper rotor, the tension coefficient, power coefficient and torque coefficient are as follows

r=1
Z Z1
1
CTl = dCTl = σl Cl r2 dr, (19)
2
r=0 0

r=1
Z Z1
1
CPl = λl dCTl + σ C r3 dr, (20)
2 l d
r=0 0

CMl = CPl /2π, (21)

respectively, where it should be noted that σu , σl , in general. The double-rotor can adjust the blade
pitch, speed and other parameters to meet the tension demand. Under normal working conditions, the
torque of the upper and lower rotor is balanced, that is CMu = CMl .
Then the tension coefficient, power coefficient and torque coefficient of the coaxial double-rotor
propeller are expressed as follows
CTp = CTu + CTl , (22)
 CTp = CTu + CTl , (22)

CPp = CPu + CPl , (23)

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 7 of 19

CM p = C M u + C M l . (24)
CPp = CPu + CPl , (23)
At present, there is no ducted coaxial dual-rotor aerodynamics theory for reference. In this
CMp = CMu + CMl . (24)
paper, the aerodynamics model of ducted coaxial dual-rotor was derived by referring to the above
BEMT method,there
At present, and is
the
nofactor
ductedq coaxial
of ductdual-rotor
tension ratio is introduced
aerodynamics to establish
theory the aerodynamics
for reference. In this paper,
model
the of ducted coaxial
aerodynamics model dual-rotor. The total
of ducted coaxial tension of
dual-rotor ducted
was fan by
derived is referring to the above BEMT
method, and the factor q of duct tension ratio is introduced to establish the aerodynamics model of
T f = Ts + Tp = qT f + Tp , (25)
ducted coaxial dual-rotor. The total tension of ducted fan is

Ts + T ,
= qT
T f = Ts + Tpq = ,f p (25)
(26)
Tf
Ts
There is no theoretical formula for duct q = tension
, factor q [19]. At the present stage,(26) the
Tf
approximate curve of the ratio of propeller tension to total tension T is given based on the research
There
results of is
R.no theoretical
kiriebel formula
[20] on for duct tension
thin cylindrical ductedfactor q [19].as
propeller, Atisthe present
shown stage,
in the the approximate
Figure 3
curve of the ratio of propeller tension to total tension T is given based on the research results of R.
kiriebel [20] on thin cylindrical ducted propeller,Tpas=is shown
1
, in the Figure 3 (27)
Tf 1+ f 1
Tp 1
= , (27)
Tf +
Ts f 1 f 1
1
q= = , (28)
Tf 1+ f 1
Ts f1
q= = , (28)
T 1 + f1
The fitting formula of tension factor q curve isf (take x = L / D , where L is the duct length, and D is
The
thefitting formula of tension factor q curve is (take x = L/D, where L is the duct length, and D is the
duct diameter).
duct diameter).
When 0  x  0.2 , f 1 = 100 x 3 − 52.8571x 2 + 10.3214x + 0.0007143 ;
When 0 < x < 0.2, f 1 = 100x3 − 52.8571x2 + 10.3214x + 0.0007143;
When <
When0.20.2 x< 1, f 1 = 0.8544x3 − 1.9389x2 + 1.4973x + 0.5252.
x  1 , f 1 = 0.8544 x 3 − 1.9389 x 2 + 1.4973x + 0.5252 .

Figure3.3.Tension
Figure Tensionfactor
factorfitting
fittingcurve.
curve.

The aerodynamic force and torque of the lift fan system are transferred to the Body coordinate
system. The force and torque are shown in the Figure 4.
 The aerodynamic force and torque of the lift fan system are transferred to the Body coordinate
system. The force and torque are shown in the Figure 4.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 8 of 19

The aerodynamic force and torque of the lift fan system are transferred to the Body coordinate
system. The force and torque are shown in the Figure 4.

Figure 4. Lift fan force diagram.

The coordinate transformation matrix of a lift fan coordinate system and body coordinate system
is R bf , and its dimension is 3 × 1. Figure
Since 4.
liftLift
fansfancannot deflect, the transformation matrix can be
force diagram.
Figure 4. Lift fan force diagram.
expressed as
The coordinate transformation matrix of a lift fan coordinate system and body coordinate system
The coordinate transformation matrix of a lift fan coordinate system and body coordinate system
bf =  cannot
0,0, −1 deflect,
T
is Rb f , and its dimension is 3 × 1. Since liftRfans . the transformation matrix can(29) be
is R bf , and its dimension is 3 × 1. Since lift fans cannot deflect, the transformation matrix can be
expressed as
The expression
expressed as of aerodynamic force and torque
Rb f = [0, 0, of
−1the
]T . lift fan system under the body coordinate (29)
system is Fb , f = R bf  F f , M b , fM = R bf  M f , where they have T the same dimension as R bf .
The expression of aerodynamic force and = 0,0,of−1the
Rbftorque  .lift fan system under the body coordinate (29)
The calculation of the torque generated by the aerodynamic force of the lift fan under the body
system is Fb, f = Rb f · F f , Mb, f M = Rb f · M f , where they have the same dimension as Rb f .
coordinate
The system is obtained M=L
from force  Ftorque
, where L is liftthe
fanmoment arm vector, F is the force
The expression
calculationof ofaerodynamic
the torque generated and of the
by the aerodynamic system
force of under
the liftthe
fanbody
under coordinate
the body
b , f = R bfis obtained = R bfM M
vector,
system and
is Fsystem the dimensions are
F f , M b , fMfrom 3 × 1, and the specific calculation formula is obtained by
coordinate = fL, ×
where
F, wheretheyLhave
is thethe same dimension
moment arm vector,as bf . force vector,
F isRthe
MYb, fF = X f  FXf .
and Thedimensions
the calculation are of the3 ×torque
1, and generated
the specificbycalculation
the aerodynamic
formulaforce of the lift
is obtained by fan
MYb,under
fF = X the body
f ·FXf.
coordinate system is obtained from M = L  F , where L is the moment arm vector, F is the force
2.2.
2.2. Aerodynamic
and the Model
Aerodynamic
vector, Model of
of Lift
dimensions Lift Duct
Duct
are 3 × 1, and the specific calculation formula is obtained by
MYb, fF
The= X 
The advantagesF
advantages
f Xf . of
of ducted
ducted propellers
propellers overover isolated
isolated propellers
propellers have have been
been analyzed
analyzedin in Section
Section 2.1.
2.1.
The following is
The following is the
the aerodynamic
aerodynamicmodeling
modelingofofthe
theducted
ductedpropellers.
propellers.ItItisisassumed
assumed that
that thethe density
density of
of
thethe
2.2. gasgas through
Aerodynamic
through the
Model
the duct remains
of Lift
duct unchanged
Duct unchanged
remains andand
thethe influence
influence of viscosity
of viscosity is ignored.
is ignored. According
According to
to
thethe continuity
continuity equation,
equation, thethe three
three sections
sections inin the
the Figure
Figure 5 satisfy
5 satisfy 1 =vv
Av11A=
v1have p pAA p== vv22 A
panalyzed A22 ,, where
where V V is the
is2.1.
the
The advantages of ducted propellers over isolated propellers been in Section
axial flow velocity of the flow tube, and A is the section area of the flow
flow tube.
tube.
The following is the aerodynamic modeling of the ducted propellers. It is assumed that the density
of the gas through the duct remains unchanged and the influence of viscosity is ignored. According
to the continuity equation, the three sections in the Figure 5 satisfy v1 A1 = v p Ap = v2 A2 , where V is the
axial flow velocity of the flow tube, and A is the section area of the flow tube.

Schematic diagram
Figure 5. Schematic
Figure diagram of
of speed
speed and
and pressure
pressure before and after the disc.

The tension,
The tension,power
powerandandtorque generated
torque by by
generated thethe
propeller can be
propeller cancalculated by BEMT
be calculated theorytheory
by BEMT above.
Tension coefficient expression
above.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of speed and pressure before and after the disc.
Tension coefficient expression r=1
Z Z1
1 2 can be calculated by BEMT theory
1 σp Cl r2 dr,
The tension, power and torque
CTgenerated
p =
1 Tby=the 1propeller
r =dC
p (30)
above. =0  dCTp = 0  p Cl r dr ,
CTp r= 2
(30)
r =0
20
Tension coefficient expression
Power coefficient expression
r=1r =1 1
1Z 1
CPd =Tp λd dCTTpd + 2   pσCdlCr ddr
= =
Z 2
C dC ,
r3 dr, (30)
(31)
r =0 0 2
r=0 0
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 9 of 19

Torque coefficient expression

CMd = CPd /2π, (32)

The final propeller tension, power and torque are expressed as follows

Tp = ρA(ΩR)2 CTp
Pd = ρA(ΩR)3 CPd , (33)
Md = ρAR(ΩR)2 CMd

The factor q of duct tension ratio is also introduced to establish the total tension model of the lift duct
as follows Td = Ts + Tp = qTd + Tp .
The velocity at the propeller disc is vp . According to the momentum theory, the propeller tension
and the power driving the propeller (equal the kinetic energy increased by the flow) can be expressed
as
Tp = ρA2 v2 (v2 − v1 ), (34)
1  
ρA2 v2 v22 − v21 = ∆Ekin ,
Pd = vp Tp = ρA2 v2 vp (v2 − v1 ) = (35)
2
The useful work done by the propeller can be expressed as

Wp = Tp v1 = ρA2 v1 v2 (v2 − v1 ), (36)

Then, the propeller efficiency can be expressed as

Wp ρA2 v1 v2 (v2 − v1 ) 2v1 2

ηp = =   = = v2 , (37)
Pp 1
ρA 2 v 2 v2 − v2 v1 + v2 1 + v1
2 2 1

In an ideal condition, the contracted wake area is A2 = πa2 R2 , where a = 0.707, A2 /Ap = 0.5.
In other words, under the ideal gas flow condition, the airflow velocity of the rear vena contracta of
the duct can be obtained as v2 = v1 + ∆v/a2 . At this time, v1 is the axial free flow velocity, and the
dimensionless velocity λ at the vena contracta of the flow tube can be calculated according to the BEMT
theory mentioned above in relation (13), and then converted into v2 .

v2 = λΩR. (38)

The aerodynamic force and torque of the lift duct were converted to the coordinate axis of the
Appl. Sci.
body, and 2019,
the9, force
x FOR and
PEERgeometric
REVIEW
relationship are shown in the Figure 6. 10 of 20

Figure 6. Diagram of force and geometry of lift duct.

Figure 6. Diagram of force and geometry of lift duct.
The coordinate transformation matrix of lift duct force and torque to the plane body coordinate
The coordinate transformation matrix of lift duct force and torque to the plane body coordinate
system is Rbd , of which the dimension is 3 × 3.
system is R bd , of which the dimension is 3 × 3.
 cos θd 0 sin θd 
 
  cos  d 0 sin  d 
Rbd =   0 0 0 , (39)
R bd =  0 0 0  , (39)
− sin θd 0 cos θd
 − sin  d 0 cos  d 

Under the coordinate system of the body, the force of the lift duct is expressed as:
Fb , d _ i = R bd  Fd _ i , where the dimension of F is 3 × 1.The lift duct torque is expressed in the body
coordinate system as M b , dM _ i = R bd  M d _ i , where the dimension of M is 3 × 1. The calculation of the
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 10 of 19

Under the coordinate system of the body, the force of the lift duct is expressed as: Fb,d_i = Rbd · Fd_i ,
where the dimension of F is 3 × 1.The lift duct torque is expressed in the body coordinate system as
Mb,dM_i = Rbd · Md_i , where the dimension of M is 3 × 1. The calculation of the torque generated by
the lift duct force under the coordinate system of the body is obtained from M = L × F, and the specific
calculation formula is as follows:

Mb,dF_i = (xd_i , yd_i , zd_i ) × Fb,d_i , (40)

where x, y, z is the coordinate position of the lift duct, and i is the imaginary number of the lift duct.

2.3. Induced Wing Aerodynamic Model

The induced wing surface is connected to the airframe, and its aerodynamic force is mainly
determined by the airflow velocity at the outlet of the lift duct. The velocity at the outlet of the lift duct
is taken as the free flow velocity of the induced wing surface, so as to simplify the establishment of the
induced wing aerodynamic model.
As shown in Figure 7, the aerodynamic force and moment of the induced wing surface can be
obtained. In the airflow coordinate system, namely the coordinate system of the lift duct, the calculation
is as follows [21]:
FX,iw = −(CD,0 + CD,i ) · q · S · ξD
FZ,iw = −[CL,0 + CLα · (θiw − θd )] · q · S · ξL , (41)
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
MYiw = CM (θiw −θd ) · q · S · c · ξM 11 of 20
where CD,0 is the zero-lift drag coefficient, CD,i is the induced drag coefficient, CL,0 is the zero Angle of
Mb,iwF lift
attack (
_ i =coefficient, )
xiw _ i , yiw _ iC, zLα
iw _is  Fbslope
i the ,iw _ i , where x, y,
of the lift z isθthe
line, iw iscoordinate position
the induced of the induced
wing inclination and θand
angle,wing, d is
the raised culvert inclination
i is the imaginary number of the induced wing. angle, ξ is the correction factor.

Figure 7.
Figure The geometrical
7. The geometrical relation
relation between
between lift
lift duct
duct and
and induced
induced duct.
duct.

The transformation
2.4. Wing Aerodynamic Mode matrix from the lift duct coordinate system to the body coordinate system is
Rbd , and its aerodynamic force and torque are expressed as follows under the body coordinate system:
Fb,iw_iAerodynamic
= Rbd · Fiw , Mcalculation of airfoil is generally obtained by CFD software or wind tunnel tests.
b,iwM_i = Rbd · Miw_i .
To simplify the calculation,
The calculation it is assumed
of the moment that the
generated byaerodynamic
the induced force of the wing
aerodynamic is of
force notthe
affected
wing by on
the lift fan and the lift duct airflow, and the aerodynamic force and moment of
the airframe is based on the cross product of the position vector and force of the stress point the wing are functions
of the variables
the bodysuch as anglethat of attack,
is M =sideslip
L × F, angle, airspeed,
specificair density, etc.,
is aswhich are M
expressed
under coordinate, and the expression follows: b,iwF_i =
in the, form
(xiw_i yiw_i , of the
ziw_i )×conventional
Fb,iw_i , where aerodynamic
x, y, z is theforce and torque
coordinate coefficient.
position of theThen the aerodynamic
induced wing, and i is force
the
and moment of the wing can
imaginary number of the induced wing. be expressed as
Dw = CDw  q  S w
2.4. Wing Aerodynamic Mode
Lw = CLw  q  S w , (42)
Aerodynamic calculation of airfoil is generally obtained by CFD software or wind tunnel tests. To
M w = CMw  c  q  S w
simplify the calculation, it is assumed that the aerodynamic force of the wing is not affected by the lift
fan and the
where, S w , lift
c , duct airflow,
q are and the aerodynamic
the reference force and
area, characteristic chord moment
lengthof theinlet
and wingflow
are functions of the
pressure of the
variables such as angle of attack, sideslip angle, airspeed, air density, etc., which are expressed in the
vertical take-off and landing UAV, respectively; CDw , C Lw and CMw are aerodynamic force and
torque coefficients obtained by CFD calculation.
In the XZ plane, under the condition of horizontal free flow, the lift and drag force of the wing
can be transferred to the body coordinate system. In the symmetrical state, the pitching moment is
consistent with the airflow coordinate and the body coordinate. The aerodynamic expression under
the body coordinate is shown below:
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 11 of 19

form of the conventional aerodynamic force and torque coefficient. Then the aerodynamic force and
moment of the wing can be expressed as

Dw = CDw · q · Sw
Lw = CLw · q · Sw , (42)
Mw = CMw · c · q · Sw

where, Sw , c, q are the reference area, characteristic chord length and inlet flow pressure of the
vertical take-off and landing UAV, respectively; CDw , CLw and CMw are aerodynamic force and torque
coefficients obtained by CFD calculation.
In the XZ plane, under the condition of horizontal free flow, the lift and drag force of the wing
can be transferred to the body coordinate system. In the symmetrical state, the pitching moment is
consistent with the airflow coordinate and the body coordinate. The aerodynamic expression under
the body coordinate is shown below:

FXb,w = Lw sin θ − Dw cos θ

FZb,w = −Lw cos θ − Dw sin θ , (43)
MYb,w = Mw

where θ is the pitch angle of the UAV.

3. Mathematical Model of Longitudinal Motion

It is assumed that the structure of UAV is rigid except lift fan and duct, and its dynamics modeling
can apply Newton’s second law to conduct kinematic modeling of the components respectively, and
finally convert the forces and torques of the components into the whole machine to establish the overall
six degrees of freedom model.

3.1. Dynamic Model of Lift Fan and Lift Duct

In the coordinate system of the lift fan, according to the above aerodynamic model, the forces and
torques of the lift fan are arranged as follows:
P
F = Tf
P X, f . (44)
MX, f = M f

There may be deflection movement between the rising culvert and the body while hovering,
so that the high-speed rotating duct generates gyroscopic torque acting on the body. The rotational
motion of the duct around the center of mass is described as dhd /dt = Md , where hd is the moment of
momentum of the duct to its center of mass, whose dimension is 3 × 1; Md is the resultant moment of
the external force acting on the duct on its center of mass, whose dimension is 3 × 1.
When the duct coordinate system rotates with ωd , the derivative of the moment of momentum
dhd /dt can be expressed as dhd /dt = δhd /δt + ωd × hd . Project the above equation into scalar form.
Based on the existence of the rotational angular velocity ωx of the rotor inside the duct, ω y of its rotation
around its y axis, and the constraints of the duct product of inertia Ixy = Ixz = I yz = 0, the kinetic
equation of the duct rotation around the center of mass was derived as follows

Ix · dωx /dt = Mx,d

 y · dωy /dt = M y,d .
I (45)
I y − Ix ωx ω y = Mz,d

In the coordinate system of the lift duct, according to the aerodynamics model, the forces and
torques of the lift duct are arranged as follows
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 12 of 19

P
FXd _i = Td_i
P
MXd _i = Md_i + Mx,d
P . (46)
M = M y,d
P Yd _i
MZd _i = Mz,d

3.2. Full Mechanical Model

Newton’s second law is used to express the force and moment as follows

m(δV/δt + ω × V) = F, (47)

δh/δt + ω × h = M, (48)

where F represents the resultant force; M represents the resultant moment; m represents mass; V is the
velocity of motion; h represents the moment of momentum.
According to the assumption mentioned before, the above equation is expanded into the force
and moment equations of the movement of the vertical take-off and landing UAV. The force consists
of gravity, main wing aerodynamics, and induced wing aerodynamics, lift fan thrust, and lift duct
thrust. The resultant moment consists of the aerodynamic moment of the main wing, the aerodynamic
moment of the induced wing, the thrust moment of the lift fan and the thrust moment of the lift duct.
Then the six-degree of freedom motion equation of UAV can be expressed as follows
Dynamic translational equation of the center of mass
 
m dVx /dt + Vz ω y − V y ωz = FXb,g + FXb,w + FXb,iw + FXb, f + FXb,d



  
m dV y /dt + Vx ωz − Vz ωx = FYb,g + FYb,w + FYb,iw + FYb, f + FYb,d

, (49)

  


m dVz /dt + V y ωx − Vx ω y = FZb,g + FZb,w + FZb,iw + FZb, f + FZb,d



Dynamic rotational equations of the center of mass

  
Ixx · dp/dt + Izz − I yy qr − Ixz (pq + dr/dt) = MXb,w + MXb,iw + MXb, f + MXb,d 


  
I yy · dq/dt + (Ixx − Izz )pr + Ixz p2 + r2 = MYb,w + MYb,iw + MYb, f + MYb,d , (50)

  


Izz · dr/dt + I yy − Ixx pq + Ixz (qr − dp/dt) = MZb,w + MZb,iw + MZb, f + MZb,d



From the formation process of the coordinate system of the body, the projection of the rotation
angular velocity on the coordinate system of the body can be listed as follows:
. .
φ − ψsinθ
   
 p   
. . 
 q  =  θcosφ + ψsinφcosθ
  ,
  .  (51)
.

r −θsinφ + ψcosφcosθ
   

where, φ, θ, ψ are three Euler angles.

The position information in the earth coordinate can be obtained by the following formula:
. 
xE = Vx cosθcosψ + V y (sinφsinθcosψ − cosφcosψ) + Vz (cosφsinθcosψ + sinφsinψ) 
.


yE = Vx cosθsinψ + V y (sinφsinθsinψ + cosφcosψ) + Vz (cosφsinθsinψ − sinφsinψ) . (52)


. 

zE = −Vx sinθ + V y sinφcosθ + Vz cosφcosθ 

4. Balancing Calculation Method

In this paper, the balancing calculation is carried out for the hover state and transition state of
UAV. The hover state is another equilibrium state of the UAV, in addition to straight and horizontal
flight. The forces and torques acting on the UAV are changed by lifting fan, inducing wing surface
 zE = −Vx sin + Vy sin cos + Vz cos cos 


4. Balancing Calculation Method

In this
Appl. Sci. 2019,paper,the balancing calculation is carried out for the hover state and transition state
9, 4937 13 of of
19
UAV. The hover state is another equilibrium state of the UAV, in addition to straight and horizontal
flight. The forces and torques acting on the UAV are changed by lifting fan, inducing wing surface
deflection and increasing lift duct deflection. The The force
force and
and geometry
geometry relationship
relationship of UAV
UAV need to be
defined when the balance state of hover state is expanded in detail.
In the Figure 8, T represents
represents the thrust,X,
the thrust, X,YYand
andZZrepresent
representthe
thecoordinates,
coordinates,and
andthe sub-tablesf,
thesub-tables
d, and i represent the lift fan, lift duct, and device number.
f, d, and i represent the lift fan, lift duct, and device number.

Figure 8. Force, moment, and some geometrical dimensions of UAV.

Figure 8. Force, moment, and some geometrical dimensions of UAV.
In the hover and transition stage, the force acting on the UAV includes five parts: lift fan thrust,
In the hover and transition stage, the force acting on the UAV includes five parts: lift fan thrust,
lift duct thrust, induced wing aerodynamic force and main wing aerodynamic force. At this time, the
lift duct thrust, induced wing aerodynamic force and main wing aerodynamic force. At this time, the
force on2019,
Appl. Sci. the UAV is PEER
9, x FOR shown in the Figure 9.
REVIEW 14 of 20
force on the UAV is shown in the Figure 9.

Figure 9. Force
Figure 9. Force and
and moment
moment on
on the
the UAV
UAV in
in transition
transition flight.
flight.

ItIt is
isassumed
assumedthat
thatthe
theUAV
UAVfaces
facesthe vertical
the plane
vertical in in
plane thethe
hover stage,
hover andand
stage, thethe
twotwo
sides of the
sides lift
of the
duct willwill
lift duct turnturn
in opposite directions,
in opposite and and
directions, the moment will be
the moment willbalanced. Then,
be balanced. the internal
Then, forceforce
the internal and
torque of the UAV in the longitudinal plane can be expressed as follows according to previous
and torque of the UAV in the longitudinal plane can be expressed as follows according to previous formula:
formula:  
m dVx /dt + Vz ω y − V y ωz = −mgsinθ + FXb,w + FXb, f + FXb,d + FXb,iw 


m ( dVx / dt + Vzm z ) +



 y dV − Vyy/dt =−  + + + +
 
ω ω

Vmgsin − V F = F
0 F F , (53)

x z z Xb
x ,w
 
Xb , f Xb , d Xb ,iw

m dVz /dt + V y ωx − Vxmω(ydV= /mgcosθ 

y dt + Vx  z − Vz  x ) = 0
  
+ FZb,w + FZb, f + FZb,d + FZb,iw

,

(53)

m ( dVz / dt + Vyx − Vx y ) = mgcos   +F +F +F +F
Zb ,iw 

dp/dt · Ixx + qr Izz − I yy − (pq +Zbdr/dt ,w )ZbIxz
,f = 0 Zb , d 


  
2 2
dq/dt · I yy + pr(Ixx − Izz ) + p + r Ixz = MYb,w + MYb, f + MYb,d + MYb,iw 

. (54)
 + ( − ) − ( + ) = 
  
dp / dt I qr I I pq dr / dt I 0

dr/dt · Izz + pq I yy − Ixx + (qr − dp/dt)Ixz = 0


xx zz yy xz 

dq / dt  I yy + pr ( I xx − I zz ) + ( p 2 + r 2 ) I xz = M Yb, w + M Yb, f + M Yb, d + M Yb,iw  . (54)
5. Flight Strategy Calculation Case 
dr / dt  I zz + pq ( I yy − I xx ) + ( qr − dp / dt ) I xz = 0 

Taking the UAV as an example, in the paper the transition window establishment, slow balance
transition, X-axis open-loop and other aspects are calculated, and the corresponding calculation results
5. Flight Strategy Calculation Case
Taking the UAV as an example, in the paper the transition window establishment, slow balance
transition, X-axis open-loop and other aspects are calculated, and the corresponding calculation
results is obtained. The case UAV has a total weight of 125 kg, a wingspan of 4 m, an average
aerodynamic chord length of 0.85 m, an aircraft reference area of 3.4 m2, and a cruise wing load of
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 14 of 19

is obtained. The case UAV has a total weight of 125 kg, a wingspan of 4 m, an average aerodynamic
chord length of 0.85 m, an aircraft reference area of 3.4 m2 , and a cruise wing load of 73 kg/m2 .

5.1. Transition Window

The transition flight window can be divided into the transition front window and the transition
terminal window. The transition front window is the flight status of hovering at a safe height after
vertical take-off. The transition terminal window is the flight state that meets the safe level flight speed.
The terminal window usually has three important flight parameters: flight speed, power thrust and
aircraft attitude.
The window of the transition front section of the vertical take-off and landing UAV in this scheme is
horizontal hovering at a safe height of 30 m. The terminal window can be calculated by the equilibrium
equation. W = L = ρ/2 · Vs2 · S · CLmax , Vsa f e = 1.2Vs , M = 0, where W is the weight of the aircraft; L is
lift; ρ is the air density; Vs is stall speed; S is the wing area; CLmax is the maximum lift coefficient; Vsa f e
is the safe flight speed of the transition terminal window.
Appl. Sci.The
2019,balance equations
9, x FOR PEER REVIEW of force and moment can be derived from the above model, where, the
15 of 20
force equilibrium equation is T f cos θ + (Td + FXiw ) · sin(θd + θ) = G; Moment equilibrium equation
is TInf · order θd · ld + the
l f = Tdtosinsimplify sin θd · liw , where
FXiwcalculation, only lthe longitudinal
is moment arm. balance problem is considered.
Previous formula
In order can be used
to simplify to calculate
the calculation, thethe
only safe flight speed
longitudinal = 34.70m is
Vsafe problem
balance of the transition
/ sconsidered. Previous
terminal window, and the lift duct deflection angle d , safe sa
formula can be used to calculate the safe flight speed V =
= f24.12
e  and attitude angle  safe = 7.21
34.70m/s of the transition terminal
window, and the lift duct deflection angle θd,sa f e = 24.12◦ and attitude angle θsa f e = 7.21◦ at this time.
at this time. In other words, the flight speed is greater than the safe flight speed Vsafe , and the lift duct
In other words, the flight speed is greater than the safe flight speed Vsa f e , and the lift duct deflection
deflection
angle is less angle is less
than θd,sathan  safe ,attitude
and the angle
attitude angle at
is θ
stable at  safe .
f e , andd ,the is stable sa f e .

5.2.
5.2. Slow
Slow Balancing
Balancing State
State
In In
thethe
hover state,
hover thethe
state, forward
forward flight speed
flight is obtained
speed is obtainedbyby
slowly
slowlyadjusting
adjustingthethe
liftlift
duct deflection
duct deflection
angle,
angle, ductthrottle
duct throttleand
and lift
lift fan throttle,
throttle,and
andthe
theattitude
attitudepitch angle
pitch is chosen
angle to beto
is chosen equal to the to
be equal cruising
the
cruising pitch which
pitch angle, angle, which hasof
has value value of 2 degrees,
2 degrees, and its and its balance
balance state isstate
shown is shown in the Figure
in the Figure 10. 10.

24 Duct Angle
800 800
Lift Fan Thrust
Duct Thrust
20 700 700

16 600 600
T(N)
T(N)
(°)

12 500 500

8 400 400

300 300
4

200 200
0

0 10 20 30 40 50
V(m/s)

Figure 10. Lift fan and lift duct state curve when pitch angle is 2◦ .
Figure 10. Lift fan and lift duct state curve when pitch angle is 2°.
Similarly, the attitude angle θsa f e = 7.21◦ at the end of the transition window is taken as the
pitching attitude
Similarly, the angle
attitude in the
angle  safe = 7.21state,
equilibrium  at and its balanced
the end state is shown
of the transition windowin theis Figure 11.the
taken as
Calculation
pitching results
attitude angle show
in the that a certain
equilibrium forward
state, and itsspeed is observed
balanced when duct
state is shown in theisFigure
deflected
11. slowly
during transition from hovering to acceleration. Since aerodynamic force increases as speed increases,
which causes increase of lift, the lift fan power in vertical direction decreases. Thrust is gradually
800 800
reduced as the duct angle
10 gradually shrinks to 0◦ . There exist Duct two kinds of transition ways of pitch
Angle
Lift
angle. When transition is performed with small pitching angle, the deflectionFan Thrust angle of duct reduce
700
Duct Thrust 700
8

600 600
6
500 500
(°)

T(N)
T(N)

4
 16 600 600

T(N)
T(N)
(°)
12 500 500

400 400
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 8 15 of 19

300 300
4

to zero, and the speed of UAV meet requirement of transition. When200 transition
200
is performed at
0
large pitching angle and the deflection angle reduce to zero, the speed of UAV has not met the need
0 10 20 30 40 50
of transition terminal window, so duct throttle V(m/s) should be enlarged to get better secure speed for
horizontal flight.
In the process of slow balancing, by comparing different transition attitude angles, it can be seen
Figure 10. Lift fan and lift duct state curve when pitch angle is 2°.
that smooth transition to flat flight with small pitch angle can be observed, but the transition time is
longer. The transition time of transition with large pitch angle is shorter, but the control parameters
Similarly, the attitude angle  safe = 7.21 at the end of the transition window is taken as the
of the transition process change greatly, which is not stable compared with the transition of small
pitching attitude angle in the equilibrium state, and its balanced state is shown in the Figure 11.
pitch angle.

800 800
10 Duct Angle
Lift Fan Thrust
Duct Thrust 700 700
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20
8

600 600
angle. When transition is performed with small pitching angle, the deflection angle of duct reduce to
6
zero, and the speed of UAV meet requirement of transition. When transition is performed at large
500 500
(°)

T(N)
T(N)
pitching angle and the deflection angle reduce to zero, the speed of UAV has not met the need of
4
transition terminal window, so duct throttle should be enlarged to get 400 better
400
secure speed for
horizontal flight.
2
In the process of slow balancing, by comparing different transition attitude
300 300angles, it can be seen

that smooth transition to flat flight with small pitch angle can be observed, but the transition time is
0
200
longer. The transition time
0
of transition
5
with large
10 15
pitch angle
20
is shorter,
25
but the
200 control parameters

of the transition process change greatly, which

V (m/s) is not stable compared with the transition of small
pitch angle. ◦
Figure 11. Lift fan and lift duct state curve when pitch angle is 7.21 .
Figure 11. Lift fan and lift duct state curve when pitch angle is 7.21°.
5.3.The
5.3. TheXXAxis
AxisOpen-Loop
Open-LoopSlow
SlowTransition
Transition
Calculation
During results showbalancing
Duringlongitudinal
longitudinal that a certain
balancing andforward
and speed isbalancing,
static moment
static moment observed the
balancing, when duct isgrid
the vertical
vertical deflected
grid oflift
of slowly
liftfan
fanisisnot
not
during transition from
the hovering
X-axis to
limit acceleration.
is released, Since
and aerodynamic
the lift duct force
device is increases
deflectingas speed
deflecting, and the X-axis limit is released, and the lift duct device is deflecting slowly with speed of of
deflecting, and slowly increases,
with speed 1
which causes
1 degree
degree increase
perper second,
second, inoforder
inlift,
orderthe liftmeet
to
to meet fan
the power
the in vertical
transition
transition direction
terminal
terminal window
window decreases.
speedspeed Thrust
of
of the is gradually
the UAV.
UAV. The The power
power and
reduced
flight as the
and flight
data areduct
data asareangle gradually
as shown
shown shrinks
in figure
in Figure 12: 12: to 0°. There exist two kinds of transition ways of pitch

(a) (b)
Figure12.
Figure 12.(a)
(a)Slow
Slowtransition
transitionof
oflift
liftfan
fanand
andlift
liftduct
ductthrust
thruststate;
state;(b)
(b)Slow
Slowtransition
transitionof
offorward
forwardspeed
speed
and lift duct deflection.
and lift duct deflection.

Similarly,during
Similarly, duringlongitudinal
longitudinalbalancing
balancingand andstatic
staticmoment
momentbalancing,
balancing,deflection
deflectionangle
angleofofthe
the
verticalgrid
vertical gridof
oflift
liftfan
fanisisset
settotobe
be15
15degree,
degree,the theX-axis
X-axislimit
limitisisreleased,
released,and
andthe
thelift
liftduct
ductdevice
deviceisis
slowlydeflecting
slowly deflectingwith
withrotating
rotatingspeed ◦ /s, until
speedofof11°/s, untilthe
theUAV
UAVmeets
meetsthethespeed
speedof
ofthe
thetransition
transitionterminal
terminal
window.The
window. Thepower
powerand andflight
flightdata
dataare
areasasshown
shownininFigure
figure13:
13:
 and lift duct deflection.

Similarly, during longitudinal balancing and static moment balancing, deflection angle of the
vertical grid of lift fan is set to be 15 degree, the X-axis limit is released, and the lift duct device is
slowly deflecting with rotating speed of 1°/s, until the UAV meets the speed of the transition terminal
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 16 of 19
window. The power and flight data are as shown in figure 13:

(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 20
Figure
Figure 13. 13.
(a) (a) Deflection
Deflection grille
grille slow
slow transitionofoflift
transition liftfan
fanand
andlift
lift duct
duct thrust
thrust state;
state; (b)
(b)Deflection
Deflectiongrille
grille
The
slow
slow calculation
transition
transition ofresults
forward
of forward show
speed
speed that
and
and liftthe
lift slow
duct
duct deflection power device, regardless of the aircraft’s
deflection.
deflection.
dynamic characteristics, reduces the lift fan thrust gradually in 50 s. When the lift duct device deflects
toThe
a horizontal position,
calculation results theshow
aircraft
thatspeed gradually
the slow increases
deflection powerto the transition
device, flight speed,
regardless of thereaching
aircraft’s
the transition terminal window and achieving stable and flat flight.
dynamic characteristics, reduces the lift fan thrust gradually in 50 s. When the lift duct device deflects
By comparing
to a horizontal position,thethe
calculation results
aircraft speed of the deflection
gradually increasesangles
to theof the two flight
transition lift fanspeed,
grillesreaching
in the
transition process, it can be seen that the deflection of
the transition terminal window and achieving stable and flat flight.the lift fan longitudinal grille makes the UAV
transition to the the
By comparing terminal window
calculation faster,
results but deflection
of the the lift fanangles
required for two
of the longitudinal balance
lift fan grilles hastransition
in the higher
thrust and power.
process, it can be seen that the deflection of the lift fan longitudinal grille makes the UAV transition to the
terminal window faster, but the lift fan required for longitudinal balance has higher thrust and power.
5.4. The X Axis Open-Loop Rapid Transition
5.4. The Considering
X Axis Open-Loop Rapid Transition
the influence of dynamic characteristics, the VTOL UAV can reach the transition
terminal window with different control methods. The induced aerodynamic force has very low
Considering the influence of dynamic characteristics, the VTOL UAV can reach the transition
sensitivity to the overall deflection of the induction device and can only change the direction of its
terminal window with different control methods. The induced aerodynamic force has very low
force. However, the induced aerodynamic force is very sensitive to the induced wing deflection,
sensitivity to the overall deflection of the induction device and can only change the direction of its
which is manifested in the direction change and the non-linear change of the induced aerodynamic
force. However, the induced aerodynamic force is very sensitive to the induced wing deflection, which
force.
is manifested in the direction change and the non-linear change of the induced aerodynamic force.
5.4.1. Rapid Deflecting Duct and Induced Wing
5.4.1. Rapid Deflecting Duct and Induced Wing
TheThe
simulation
simulation results
resultsshow
showininFigure 14, when
figure 14, whenthe theinduced
inducedwing
wing andandliftlift
ductduct deflect
deflect withwith
a
a relatively
relatively rapid
rapid speed 5 /s,
◦
speedofof5°/s, thethe
lift lift
ductduct completes
completes deflection
deflection withinwithin 5 s, followed
5 s, followed by 4 s for by 4 s for
induced
induced
wing wing surface.
surface. Due toDuetheto induced
the induced aerodynamic
aerodynamic forceforce
for for sensitivity
sensitivity on on
thethe induced
induced wing,
wing, the
the
aerodynamic
aerodynamic force rapidly
force decreases,
rapidly andand
decreases, makes the lift
makes the duct balancing
lift duct thrust
balancing increases
thrust rapidly,
increases which
rapidly,
which isthe
is beyond beyond
UAV the UAV balancing
balancing ability. ability.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 14. 14.
(a)(a) Rapid
Rapid transitionofoflift
transition liftfan
fanand
andlift
liftduct
duct thrust
thrust state
state when
when rapid
rapiddeflecting
deflectingduct
ductand
and
induced wing; (b) Rapid transition of forward speed and lift duct deflection when Rapid
induced wing; (b) Rapid transition of forward speed and lift duct deflection when Rapid deflecting deflecting
duct
duct andand induced
induced wing.
wing.

5.4.2. Rapid Deflecting Duct and Slow Deflecting Induced Wing

When the lift duct deflects quickly, the induced wing deflects to 0° at a speed of 0.75°/s. Under
this kind of control mode, it just meets the maximum requirement of the duct thrust and can be
transferred to the transition terminal window stably.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 17 of 19

5.4.2. Rapid Deflecting Duct and Slow Deflecting Induced Wing

When the lift duct deflects quickly, the induced wing deflects to 0◦ at a speed of 0.75◦ /s. Under this
kind of control mode, it just meets the maximum requirement of the duct thrust and can be transferred
to the transition terminal window stably.

5.4.3. Arriving at Stall Speed Deflection Induced the Wing

In addition to the above continuous deflection duct and induced wing maneuvers, considering
the sensitivity of the induced aerodynamic force to the induced wing deflection, the induced wing can
be deflected after reaching the stall speed, and the deflection can be completed relatively quickly.
Appl.The simulation
Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR results show in Figure 15, when UAV arrives at stall speed, deflection of induced
PEER REVIEW 18 of 20
wing surface deflection can be completed within 10 s, balancing requirements at this time in the
feasiblerange
feasible rangeofofduct
ductand
andthe
thelift
liftfan.
fan.Within
Within1010ssofofthe
theinduced
inducedwing
wingdeflection,
deflection,the
theduct
ductthrust
thrustgets
gets
convergent oscillation. After the completion of the induced wing surface deflection,
convergent oscillation. After the completion of the induced wing surface deflection, the duct thrust the duct thrust
remainsstable
remains stableandandthe
theaircraft
aircraftwill
willfly
flysteadily.
steadily.

(a) (b)
Figure15.15.(a)(a)
Figure Rapid
Rapid transition
transition offan
of lift liftand
fanlift
and liftthrust
duct ductstate
thrust state
when whenatarriving
arriving at stall
stall speed speed
deflection
deflection
induced the induced
wing; (b)the wing
Rapid ;(b) Rapid
transition transition
of forward speed of forward speed
and lift duct and lift when
deflection duct deflection
arriving at when
stall
arriving at stall speed deflection
speed deflection induced the wing. induced the wing.

6.6.Discussion
Discussion
The
Thesimulation
simulationresultsresultsshow
showthatthatthetheUAVUAVcan canachieve
achieveaastable
stabletransition
transitionflight
flightwithin
withinthe the
constraints
constraintsofofthethefeasibility
feasibilityconditions
conditions(the(thepower
powerlimitlimitofoflift
liftfan
fanand
andthe thelift
liftduct).
duct).Both
Boththe
theslow
slow
transition
transitionand
andthethefast
fasttransition
transitionhave
havecorresponding
correspondingtransition
transitionflight
flightstrategies.
strategies.InInthe theslow
slowtransition
transition
flight,
flight,the
theflight
flightparameters
parameterschangechangegently
gentlyand andthe theUAV
UAVflight
flightstate
stateisisstable.
stable.TheTherapid
rapidtransition
transition
state,
state,due
duetotothe
therapid
rapiddeflection
deflectionofofthe
theinduced
inducedwing wingsurface,
surface,leads
leadstotothethephenomenon
phenomenonofofoscillation
oscillation
convergence
convergenceininthe thelift
liftduct,
duct,andandfinally
finallythe
thetransition
transitionflight
flightcan
canbeberealized.
realized.
The
Theaerodynamic
aerodynamicmodel modelestablished
establishedininthis thispaper
paperisiscombined
combinedwith withthe thesix-degree-of-freedom
six-degree-of-freedom
equation
equationseparately.
separately. This
Thismodeling
modeling method
method ignores
ignoresthe aerodynamic
the aerodynamic interference between
interference the liftthe
between duct
lift
and
ductthe wing,
and that is,that
the wing, it isis,
carried out under
it is carried the assumption
out under that they
the assumption thatdothey
not dointerfere with each
not interfere with other.
each
Current work focuses
other. Current on the longitudinal
work focuses flight transition
on the longitudinal of UAVofand
flight transition UAV theand situation when there
the situation whenisthereno
wind.
is no The
wind.future research
The future direction
research will focus
direction willon the on
focus lateral-directional flight offlight
the lateral-directional UAVofand UAVtheand
stable
the
transition strategystrategy
stable transition in the wind
in thefield.
windAlthough
field. Althoughthe paper is based
the paper on mathematical
is based on mathematicalmodels, in fact,
models, in
our universities, laboratories, and cooperative industrial units have reached
fact, our universities, laboratories, and cooperative industrial units have reached the TRL5 [22] and the TRL5 [22] and have
basically completed
have basically the production
completed of prototypes.
the production of prototypes.

7.7.Conclusions
Conclusions
The
Theresearch
researchisisbased
basedon
onthe
theassumption
assumptionofofignoring
ignoringthe
theaerodynamic
aerodynamicinterference
interferencebetween
between
pneumatic components. Based on the aerodynamic modeling of components, the overall dynamic
pneumatic components. Based on the aerodynamic modeling of components, the overall dynamic
model is established. After that, the transition corridor of VTOL UAV is studied in three aspects of
flight trim, slow transition and fast transition. The above three aspects are simulated under different
input conditions, such as different pitch angles and lift fan grid deflection angle. The results can be
concluded as follows.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4937 18 of 19

model is established. After that, the transition corridor of VTOL UAV is studied in three aspects of
flight trim, slow transition and fast transition. The above three aspects are simulated under different
input conditions, such as different pitch angles and lift fan grid deflection angle. The results can be
concluded as follows.

• In the transition balancing process, the transition can reach the terminal window of the transition
gently by balancing the transition with a small pitch angle 2◦ , but it takes a long time in the
transition process.
• By balancing the transition at a large pitch angle 7.21◦ , the high-speed deflection of the duct can
be realized, but the control parameters change greatly, and the flight state is not smooth enough
compared with the former.
• In the slow transition process, the UAV can achieve a faster transition in 50 s through the deflecting
lift fan longitudinal grille. However, this transition strategy requires a larger lift fan and bypass
thrust and consumes more energy.
• In the process of rapid transition, the rapid transition of UAV can be realized through the fast
deflection of lift duct and the slow deflection of induced wing surface, so as to ensure smooth
transition of UAV within 35 s.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.W. and Z.Z.; methodology, C.W. and R.W.; software, C.W.; validation,
C.W., Z.Z. and R.W.; formal analysis, C.W.; resources, Z.Z.; data curation, R.W.; writing—original draft preparation,
C.W.; writing—review and editing, C.W.; supervision, R.W.; project administration, Z.Z.; funding acquisition, Z.Z.
Funding: This research was funded by EQUIPMENT PRE-RESEARCH PROJECT, grant number 41411020401.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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