Types of Ethical Thought
Fr. Anreco
Immanuel Kant – German Philosopher (1724-1801)
Book: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
Deontologism – emphasis on duty or obligation
Intuitionism
- morality is exclusively within the human
personality; what is morally right or wrong is solely
a matter of intent, motive and will
- intuition here means internal motive or intention;
hence it is a motivist theory
For Kant, an act is moral if it is being done out of
duty.
Duty in this context is that which an individual
ought to do, despite the inclination to do otherwise.
Two Acts
a. Act done in accord with duty – non moral,
no moral significant
b. Act done for a sense of duty – a special
obligation to others because of their
relationship with them
Thus, the essence of morality is to be found in the
motive from which an act is done.
How to know one’s duty in a given situation?
One must test the act’s universality by
means of categorical imperative.
Categorical Imperative – mandates an action
Without any condition whatsoever, and without
regard to the consequences that such an action may
guide.
Hypothetical Imperative – a command with a
corresponding condition or limitation
Formulation of Categorical Imperative
1. Act only on that maxim which you can at
the same time will to become a universal
law.
2. Always act so as to treat humanity, either
yourself or others, as an end and never as
only a means.
Two Types of Duties
1. The Perfect Duty- one which we must
always observe, irrespective of time, place,
and circumstances
2. Imperfect Duty – one which we must
observe only on some occasions
Autonomous, Self-regulating Will
- Autonomy means governing, regulating,
restraining oneself, including one’s own choices or
course of action in accord with moral principles
which are ones own and which are binding on
everyone (universalizable)
Willian David Ross – British Aristotelian scholar and
moral philosopher (1877)
Book: The Right and the Good
Rule – Deontological theory
Two moral properties:
1. Rightness – belongs to acts, independent of
motives (right acts)
2. Moral Goodness – belongs to motives
(good motives)
Acts that which is done
Action – doing of an act
The doing of a right act can be the result of a
morally bad motive or inversely
In considering the rightness of an act, as well as the
goodness of a motive, we also have to determine
the nonmoral properties or circumstances
surrounding the act as such.
When moral rules come into conflict in a particular
situation?
Actual Duty – one’s real duty in a given situation
Prima Facie Duty – “At first view” “so far as it
appears”
- one that directs or commands what one ought to
perform when other relevant factors are not taken
into account.
Two Principles by which to resolve cases of
conflicting duties:
1. Act in accordance with the stronger, more
stringent, or more severe prema facie duty
2. Act in accordance with a prima facie duty,
which has a greater balance of rightness
over wrongness compared to other prima
facie duties
We have to rely on our Moral Intuition as the
ultimate guide in particular cases.
What to do them in such a situation:
1. Learn and discern the fact of the case
2. Consider the possible consequences of our
action
3. Reflect on our Prima Facie Duties
Decide on the best course of action under the
circumstances
Seven types of Prima Facie Duties:
1. Duty of Fidelity
2. Duty of Reparation
3. Duty of Gratitude
4. Duty of Justice
5. Duty of Beneficence
6. Duty of Self improvement
7. Duty of non-maleficence
John Rawls – Harvard Philosopher attempted a
brilliant synthesis of the strengths of utilitarianism
and of the deontological viewers of Kant and Ross.
He built on both Kant’s and Ross’ fundamental
notion of the ultimate dignity of human beings his
concept of social morality, which serves as the basis
of social justice.
In trying to elucidate his concept of justice
he talks of a hypothetical situation which he calls
“The Original Position”
In the original position, everyone is fair to
everyone. They don’t take advantage of each other.
Justice is fairness.
Theories of Justice:
1. Every individual is inviolable.
This inviolability, which is founded on
justice, is so sacrosanct that not even the
general welfare of security can override and
supersede it.
2. An erroneous theory is tolerable in ethe
absence of a good one.
When given two erroneous laws, one
should choose the better and less
erroneous one.
3. Individual liberties should be restricted in
order to maintain equality of opportunity.
Restriction of individual liberties serve as
safeguards against abuses and misuses of
one’s freedom against others.
Principles of Justice
1. Equal access to basic human rights and
liberties – guarantees a system of equal
rights and liberties for every citizen
2. Fair equality of opportunity and the equal
distribution of socio-economic inequalities
– deals more with the distribution of social
goods and medical resource than with
liberty.
Justice in Human Relation
Four Types of Duties:
1. Fairness in our dealings with others
2. Fidelity
3. Respect for persons
4. Beneficence
Natural Duties:
1. Duty of Justice
2. Duty of helping others in need or jeopardy
3. Duty not to harm or injure other
4. Duty to keep your promises
St. Thomas Aquinas – Italian Philosopher and
Theologian (1225-1274)
- The source of moral law is reason
- In its operation reason recognizes the basic
principle “Do good, avoid evil”
Synaeresis – inherent capacity of energy individual,
lettered or unlettered, to distinguished the good
from the bad
- Right Reason or the Voice of Reason as the moral
norm
- Voice of Reason is also Voice of Conscience
- Good in built into human nature
Man’s threefold natural inclination:
1. Self-preservation
2. Just dealings with others
3. Propagation of our species
The Determinants of Moral Action
1. The Object – that which the will intends
directly and primarily is the object of the
moral act. It can be thing (money) or an
action (surgical operation)
2. Circumstances – condition which, when
superadded to the nature of the moral act,
will affect its morality
Seven Circumstances:
a. Who – something to do with the special
quality, prestige, rank, or excellence of
the person involved in the moral act
b. What – refers to the quality or quantity
of the moral object
c. Where – demotes the place where the
act occurs.
d. By what means – refers to the means
used in carrying out the act.
e. Why – end or purpose
f. How – indicate the manner in which the
action is done
g. When – refers to the time element
involved in the performances of an
action
3. The end or Purpose – purpose of the doer
or agent
Principle of Double Effect – applies to a situation in
which a good effect will result from good cause
Four conditions to resolve these kinds of conflict:
1. The action directly intended must be good
in itself, or at least morally indifferent.
2. The good effect must follow from the action
at least as immediately as the evil effect; or
the evil effect may follow from the good
effect.
3. The foreseen evil effect may not be
intended or approved, but merely
permitted to occur.
4. There must be proportionate and sufficient
reason for allowing the evil effect to occur
while performing the action.
The Principle of Totality – an individual has the
right to cut off, mutilate, or remove any defective or
worn-out non-functioning part of his body; to
dispose of his organs or to destroy their capacity to
function “only insofar as the general well-being of
the whole body requires it
Other principles of Natural Law Ethics
1. Principle of stewardship – human life
comes from God, and no individual is the
master of his/her own body
2. Principle of Inviolability of life - life is
God’s and has been loaned to us; hence, it
is inviolable and sacred
3. Principle of Sexuality and Procreation –
underscores a twofold purpose of sexual
union
a. Procreation and nurturing of children
b. Expression of loving union and
companionship