Hydrology

RUN-OFF, STREAMFLOW & GROUNDWATER

CONTENTS

4.0 Learning Objectives

4.1 Run-off and Stream Flow
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Development of Rainfall-Runoff Relationship
4.1.3 Water Year
4.1.4 Classification of Stream
4.1.5 Yield
4.1.6 Drought
4.1.7 Water Harvesting
4.2 Ground Water
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Hydrologic Classification
4.2.3 Forms of Subsurface Water
4.2.4 Saturated Formation
4.2.5 Water Table
4.2.6 Ground Water Management
4.2.7 Safe Yield
4.2.8 Construction of Wells
4.2.9 Spacing of Wells
4.3 Flood Control and Routing
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Flood
4.3.3 Flood Routing
4.3.4 Flood Control

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the importance of run-off and streamflow
2. Understand the natural phenomena such as drought and possible solutions to such
phenomenon
3. Understand groundwater hydrology
4. Define and identify aquifers
5. Understand the concept of floods
6. Understand flood routing and control

RUN-OFF AND STREAM FLOW

Introduction

The amount of water within a river or stream is of great interest to hydrologists. It represents the
end- product of all the other processes in the hydrological cycle and is where the largest amount
of effort has gone into analysis of historical records. The methods of analysis are covered in
the last chapter; this chapter deals with the mechanisms that lead to water entering the stream:
the runoff mechanisms. Runoff is a loose term that covers the movement of water to a
channelized stream, after it has reached the ground as precipitation. The movement can occur
either on or below the surface and at differing velocities. Once the water reaches a stream it
moves towards the oceans in a channelised form, the process referred to as streamflow or
riverflow. Streamflow is expressed as discharge: the volume of water over a defined time
period.

Many processes that are of interest from a hydrologic point of view are often difficult to observe
routinely and unambiguously. Streamflow Measurement Is one such variable that can only be
measured at a gauging site of a basin with some confidence. However, from a broader
perspective, major river basins or catchments, especially in developing countries like India, have
been gauged for determination of hydrological variables, while medium and small size
catchments are mostly ungauged. Several major catchments in different parts of the country still
remain ungauged; and in some catchments, the existing gauging networks are being discontinued
due to economic constraints, lack of regular manpower, and inaccessible reasons. Thus, there is a
need for methods that can be utilized for realistic estimation of such hydrological variables in
ungauged catchments.

One of the popular methods is to make use of the available rainfall-runoff data to develop a
relationship and use the same for extrapolating the rainfall series to generate runoff. These
relationships, at times, are used for homogeneous regions where flood-producing patterns are
similar. In this chapter, we will discuss how and why these relationships are developed. While
such relationships are useful to estimate mean flood, a more rigorous approach is often needed
which involves routing of runoffs at different levels of a catchment to produce a flood
hydrograph at the outlet of a catchment. In such an approach, runoff from different sub
catchments needs to be routed through a network of channels. With this in view, concepts of
routing are also covered here.

A. Run-off
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- Means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a
surface channel. It thus represents the output from the catchment in a given unit of
time.
- Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation. For a given precipitation, the
evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and detention storage requirements will
have to be first satisfied before the commencement of run-off. When these are
satisfied, the excess precipitation moves over the land surfaces to reach smaller
channels. This portion of the runoff is called overland flow and involves building up
of a storage over the surface and draining off the same. Usually the lengths and
depths of overland flow are small and the flow is in the laminar regime. Flows from
several small channels join bigger channels and flows from these in turn combine to
form a larger stream, and so on till the flow reaches the catchment outlet. The flow in
this mode, where it travels all the time over the surface as overland flow and through
channels as open-channel flow and reaches the catchment outlet is called surface run-
off.
- A part of the precipitation that infiltrates moves laterally through upper crusts of the
soil and returns to the surface at some location away from the point of entry into the
soil. This component of runoff is known variously as interflow, through flow, storm
seepage, subsurface storm flow or quick return flow.

Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the runoff, the runoff is classified into
two categories as;

1. Direct Run-Off

- It is that part of the runoff which enters the stream immediately after the rainfall. It
includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on the surface of the stream. In
the case of snow melt, the resulting flow entering the stream is also direct runoff.

- Sometimes terms such as direct storm runoff and storm runoff are used to designate
direct runoff.

2. Base Flow

- The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as groundwater flow is called base
flow. Many times delayed interflow is also included under this category.

3. Natural Flow

- Run-off representing the response of a catchment to precipitation reflects the

integrated effects of a wide range of catchment, climate and rainfall characteristics.
True runoff is therefore stream flow in its natural condition, e.g. without human
intervention.

- Such a stream flow unaffected by works of man, such as reservoirs and diversion
structures on a stream is called natural flow or virgin flow.
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Development of Rainfall-Runoff Relationship

One may often need to develop such relationships in case the existing approaches may
not hold good. In this section, we will review the existing approaches and develop
procedures to establish new relationships. In many real field problems, stream flow
records are short or rarely available, and in such cases, they need to be extended.

In general, the following data situations or scenarios are encountered:

a. long-term precipitation record along with a streamflow data for a few years at the site
are available;

b. long-term precipitation record is available at the site along with precipitation and
streamflow data for a few years at a neighboring site;

c. only precipitation record at the site is available; and

d. no record of any kind is available.

All these cases require a mathematical method that can be used for the available data and
extend the streamflow series. A common method is to use simple models based on linear
regression, which will be discussed in the following pages. To emphasize the importance
of developing rainfall-runoff relationships, we begin with the existing approaches.

Water Year

In annual runoffs studies, it is advantageous to consider a water year beginning from the
time when the precipitation exceeds the average evapotranspiration losses. In india, June
1st is the beginning of a water year which ends on may 31st of the following calendar
year. In a water year a complete cycle of climatic changes is expected and hence the
water budget will have the least amount of carryover.

Classification of Stream

1. Perennial

- Is one which always carries some flow. There is a considerable amount of

groundwater flow throughout the year. Even during the dry seasons, the water table
will be above the bed of the stream.

2. Intermittent

- Has limited contribution from the groundwater. During the wet season, the water
table is above the stream bed and there is a contribution of the base flow to the stream

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flow. However, during dry seasons, the water table drops to a level lower that of the
stream bed and the stream dries up.

3. Ephemeral

- Is one which does not have any base-flow contribution. The annual hydrograph of
such a river shows a series of short-duration spikes marking flash flows in response to
storms.

- Most of the rivers in arid zones are of the ephemeral kind.

The flow characteristics of a stream depend upon:

1. The rainfall characteristics, such as magnitude intensity, distribution according to time

and space, and its variability.

2. The catchment characteristics such as soil, land use/cover, slope, geology, shape and
drainage density.

3. Climatic factors which influence evapotranspiration.

Yield

- The total quantity of surface water that can be expected in a given period from a
stream at the outlet of its catchment is known as yield of the catchment in that period.

- Depending upon the period chosen we have annual yield signifying yield of the
catchment in a year and in a specified season respectively.

Drought

- Drought is a climatic anomaly characterized by deficit supply of moisture. This may

result from subnormal rainfall over large regions causing below normal natural
availability of water over long periods of time.

- Drought phenomenon is a hydrological extreme like flood and is a natural disaster.

Unlike floods the droughts are of the creeping kind; they develop in a region over a
length of time and sometimes may extend to continental scale.

Classification of Drought

1. METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT
- It is a situation where there is more than 25% decrease in precipitation from normal
over an area

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2. HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT
- Meteorological drought, if prolonged, results in hydrological drought with marked
depletion of surface water and groundwater. The consequences are the drying up of
tanks, reservoirs, streams and rivers, cessation of springs and fall in the groundwater
level.

3. AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT
- This occurs when the soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate during the growing
season to support healthy crop growth to maturity. There will be extreme crop stress
and wilt conditions.

- Drought management involves development of both short-term and long term

strategies. Short term strategies include early warning, monitoring and assessment of
droughts. Long term strategies aim at providing drought mitigating measures through
proper soil and water conservation, irrigation scheduling and cropping patterns.

Water Harvesting

- Is a general term to include all systems that concentrate, collect and store runoff from
small catchments for later use in smaller user areas.

- Is defined as the process of collecting and concentrating runoff water from a runoff
area into a run-on area.

GROUNDWATER

Introduction

A brief look at a list of job openings in the field of hydrology is one way to develop an
awareness of the importance of knowledge of ground water hydrology. It is probably the area of
specialty in the field of hydrology where the greatest demand for employment currently exists. In
many locations, water stored in geologic formations is the primary source of water for personal,
municipal, commercial, industrial, and agricultural uses. In these cases, surface water supply
sources are nonexistent or too costly to use. In many agricultural communities, irrigation is
required, and knowledge of soil moisture and soil-water-plant interactions is necessary to
maintain productivity.

In the past, hazardous chemicals were disposed of by burying tanks filled with the waste
chemicals; at the time this was the least costly alternative for disposal. In time, corrosion of the
tanks has allowed the wastes to leak into adjacent geologic formations, which represents a
significant public health hazard. Many job openings are available for those with experience and
or knowledge of the transport of hazardous wastes through geologic formations.

An understanding of the flow of water into and through the soil system is important to many
engineering design problems. The characteristics of soil and their interaction with water is
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important in the design of building foundations, roadways and other transportation facilities,
sewage lagoons, sanitary landfills, septic tanks, dams, bridge piers, and levees. Soil
characteristics are an important factor in estimating flood magnitudes.

Knowledge of ground water hydrology is also important to those who work in the field of surface
water flood hydrology. While maximum flow rates (that is, volumes per unit time) and velocities
may cause flood damage and be the primary design variables, this should not imply that soil
properties are not important to surface runoff. Soil properties control the rate at which water
infiltrates into the soil, percolates through the subsurface geologic formations, and travels
through the soil to seep into surface water bodies from below the water sur- face. This rate
affects the proportions of rainfall that appear as surface runoff and as ground water losses. Thus
the soil properties affect surface water hydrologic designs

Where designs or analyses require knowledge of ground water, factors that can be important
include the characteristics of the geologic formation, properties of the water and chemicals if
appropriate, the extent of the geologic formation, and both the temporal and spatial variation of
the water. The objective of this chapter is to introduce the basic concepts and variables related to
the geologic formation and to provide examples of how these concepts are important in solving
problems related to the movement of water in geologic formations.

Groundwater Has been a popular resource of water in many tropical countries. Groundwater is
easy to extract, and it remains well protected from the hazards of pollution that the surface water
has to put up with. However, situations wherein we have encountered overexploitation of
groundwater resources are not uncommon. Lack of detailed knowledge about the basics of
groundwater is the primary reason why we have not been able to use groundwater resources to
their full extent. Thus, there is a growing emphasis on groundwater management.

In this topic, we intend to cover the basics of groundwater which includes a description of the
potential, the flow from higher potential to lower potential by Darcy’s law along with its
application. Some of the preliminary terms related to groundwater are also defined. The basic
equations of groundwater flow for steady and unsteady saturated flow are derived. An insight
into solutions of the groundwater flow equations is also provided for a variety of flow conditions.

Hydrologic Classification

Given the importance of groundwater, it is useful to classify regions of a soil column on the basis
of the water content. Two zones can be specified. Where all voids within a column are filled with
water, the column is said to be saturated. The water table is the upper limit of the saturated zone.
Very often, the term ground water is used to refer to water in the zone of saturation. Above the
water table, the pore space in the soil column may have both water and air; this zone is referred
to as the zone of aeration, or the unsaturated zone. The terms suspended water or vadose water
are used to refer to water in the zone of aeration; in practice, this water is simply referred to as
soil moisture. Separating the soil column into these two zones is necessary because the physical
processes and methods of estimation are different in the two zones.

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The zone of aeration can be further divided into three subzones; the soil-water or root zone, the
intermediate zone, and the capillary zone, which is sometimes referred to as the capillary fringe.
Water in the zone of aeration may exist as gravity water (that is, water that can drain under the
force of gravity), capillary water (that is, water retained by capillary forces), and hygroscopic
moisture (that is, water that adheres to the surface of the soil particles as a thin film).

Forms of Subsurface Water

Water in the soil mantle is called subsurface water and is considered in two zones:

1. Saturated Zone - this zone, also known as groundwater zone, is the space in which all the
pores of the soil are filled with water. the water table forms its upper limit and marks a
free surface, i.e. a surface having atmospheric pressure.

2. Zone of Aeration - In this zone, the soil pores are only partially saturated with water. the
space between the land surface and the water table marks the extent of this zone. the zone
of aeration has three subzones.

a. Soil Water Zone - This lies close to the ground surface in the major root band of the
vegetation from which the water is lost to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration.

b. Capillary Fringe - In this, the water is held by capillary action. this zone extends from the
water table upwards to the limit of the capillary rise.

c. Intermediate Zone - this lies between the soil water and the capillary fringe. the thickness
of the zone of aeration and its constituent subzones depend upon the soil texture and
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moisture content and vary from region to region. the soil moisture in the zone of aeration
is of importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering.

Saturated Formation

All earth materials, from soils to rocks have pore spaces. although these pores are completely
saturated with water below the water table. from the groundwater utilization aspect only such
material through which water moves easily and hence can be extracted with ease are significant.
on this basis the saturated formations are classified into four categories:

1. Aquifer - is a saturated formation of earth material which not only stores water but yields
it in sufficient quantity. Thus, an aquifer transmits water relatively easily due to its high
permeability. unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.

2. Aquitard - It is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to the flow of

water. it may be considered as closed to water movement even though it may contain
large amounts of water due to its high porosity. Clay is an example of an aquiclude.

3. Aquifuge - It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable. there are
no interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water. massive compact rock
without any fractures is an aquifuge.

A confined aquifer, also known as artesian aquifer, is an aquifer which is confined between two
impervious beds such as aquicludes or aquifuges. recharge of this aquifer takes place only in the
area where it is exposed at the ground surface. The water in the confined aquifer will be under
pressure and hence the piezometric level will be much higher than the top level of the aquifer. at
some locations: the piezometric level can attain a level higher than the land surface and a well
driven into the aquifer such a location will flow freely without the aid of any pump. in fact, the
term artesian is derived from the fact that a large number of such free flow wells were found in
artois, a former province in north france. instances of free-flowing wells having as much as a 50
m head at the ground surface are reported.

A confined aquifer is called leaky aquifer if either or both of its confining beds are aquitards.

Water Table

A water table is the free water surface in an unconfined aquifer. the static level of a well
penetrating an unconfined aquifer indicates the level of the water table at that point. The water
table is constantly in motion adjusting its surface to achieve a balance between the recharge and
outflow from the subsurface storage. fluctuations in the water level in a dug well during various
seasons of the year, lowering of the groundwater table in a region due to heavy pumping of the
wells and the rise in the water table of an irrigated area with poor drainage, are some common
examples of the fluctuation of the water table. In a general sense, the water table follows the
topographic features of the surface. if the water table intersects the land surface the groundwater
comes out to the surface in the form of springs or seepage.
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Sometimes a lens or localised patch of impervious stratum can occur inside an unconfined
aquifer in such a way that it retains a water table above the general water table. such a water
table retained around the impervious material is known as a perched water table.

Groundwater Management

In many localities ground water is a primary source of water supply. Groundwater is extracted
through wells as a source of water supply for municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses. Water
serves as a necessary resource. Since groundwater supplies are recharged naturally, it is a
renewable resource. However, like any renewable resource, it can be depleted if it is not properly
managed. The most noticeable visual effect of groundwater depletion is the depression of the
land surface. Depressions occur because the pore water pressure of the groundwater is partly
responsible for balancing the pressure force of any external burden and the overlying soil. When
the groundwater supply is severely depleted, the soil structure of the aquifer must support the
overlying burden by itself. If it is structurally inadequate, the aquifer consolidates with the
depression of the ground surface as a result.

Another important effect of the depletion of groundwater supplies is the reduction of the water
available for pumping. It is more difficult to extract water from a nearly depleted aquifer and this
reduces the supply of water for others, as well as for future generations. The quality of the water
may also deteriorate when an aquifer is over-harvested.

Safe Yield

When water is extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge of the aquifer, the water table is
lowered. Therefore, the rate of water extraction that can be safely harvested from an aquifer is an
important characteristic for ground water management. This rate is called the safe yield;
specifically, the safe yield is the volume of water that can be extracted from an aquifer during
any time period without adversely affecting the supply. In practice, the time period used to
compute estimates of safe yield is 1 year. However, recognizing that precipitation, surface
runoff, and evapotranspiration rates vary from year to year, and therefore the recharge of ground
water supplies varies naturally, a period other than 1 year could be used. Water removed from an
aquifer in excess of the safe yield is termed overdraft.

Construction of Wells

In alluvial soil, where an impervious vertical steining is provided to support the soil, percolation
into the well is entirely from the bottom and depends on the area of cross-section of the well.
Bigger diameter wells are recommended in such soil to give larger yields. In case of wells in
rocky substrata with fissures and cracks, the lower portion of the steining may be provided with
alternate bands of masonry laid dry (i.e., without cement mortar) (Fig. 7.7), and the percolation
into the well is mostly from the sides through fissures and cracks in the weathered rock. In such
wells, higher yields are obtained by going deeper, as long as the weathering and fractures are
evident rather than making the wells wider or larger in diameter. Larger diameter wells also
involve large volume of excavation in rocks and the mounds of excavated rock deposited on the
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ground surface occupy considerable area of cultivable land. Sometimes, it is pro- posed to widen
when it is felt that such widening will include some well-defined fissures and fractures.

Some of the existing wells may be revitalised by deepening by blasting; vertical bores may be
drilled at the bottom of the well when it is felt it will tap some layer under pressure, i.e., a dug-
cumborewell, with a centrifugal pump kept at the bottom of the open well and the suction pipe
lowered inside the bore, thus reducing the suction lift and saving the costs involved in deep well
turbine pump or submersible pump installations in drilled deep wells from the ground surface.
Lateral bores horizontal or inclined, may be drilled in the direction of certain well-defined
fractures yielding water.

Spacing of Wells

Pumping wells should be spaced far apart so that their cones of depression will not overlap over
each other resulting in the reduction of their yields and/or increased drawdowns, i.e., to avoid
‘well interference’, the wells should be spaced beyond their radii of influence. This is roughly
estimated to be around 600–1000 m in alluvial areas and around 100–200 m in hard rock areas.

An open dug well should be located beyond the cone of depression of the tubewell; other- wise
when the tube well is pumping, it will dewater the open well. The open well can get water only
when the tube well pumping is stopped and fast recuperation takes place.

FLOOD CONTROL AND ROUTING

Introduction

There are numerous problems in hydrology wherein the data mostly contains measurements on a
single random variable. Hence, univariate analysis and univariate estimation are important keys
to solve hydrological problems. The objective of univariate analysis is to analyse measurements
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on the random variable, which is called sample information; and identify the statistical
population from which we can reasonably expect the sample measurements to have come from.
After the underlying population has been identified, one can make probabilistic statements about
the future occurrences of the random variable; this represents univariate estimation. It is
important to remember that univariate estimation is based on the assumed population and not the
sample; the sample is used only to identify the population.

Hydrologic processes, such as rainfall, snowfall, floods, droughts, etc. are usually investigated by
analysing their records of observations. Many characteristics of these processes may not
represent a definite relationship. For example, if annual instantaneous peak discharges of a river
are plotted, then a rather erratic graph would be obtained. The variation of peak discharge from
one year to another cannot be explained by fitting a definite relationship, which we call a
deterministic relationship. In hydrologic analysis, the annual peak discharge is considered to be a
random variable. Probability and statistical methods are employed for analysis of random
variables. In this chapter, some elementary probability distributions were represented, which are
used in frequency analysis in hydrology.

 In order to have meaningful estimates from flood frequency analysis, the following
assumptions are implicit.
 The data to be analysed describe random events.
 The data is homogeneous.
 The population parameters can be estimated from the sample data. It is of good quality.

If the data available for analysis do not satisfy any of the listed assumptions, then the estimates
are not considered reliable. Moreover, the data should be (i)relevant, (ii)adequate, and
(iii)accurate. For Flood Frequency Analysis, either annual flood series or partial duration series
may be used.

In general, an array of annual peak flood series may be considered as a sample of random and
independent events. The non-randomness of the peak series will increase the degree of
uncertainty in the derived frequency relationship. Various tests are available to check the
randomness of the peak flow data. The annual maximum flood series can generally be regarded
as consisting of random events as the mean interval of each observed flood peak is 1 year.
However, in case data is used for partial duration series analysis, then independence among the
data is doubtful. The peaks are selected in such a way that they constitute a random sample.

The term ‘relevant’ means that the data must deal with the problem. For example, if the problem
is of the duration of flooding, then the data series should represent the duration of flows in excess
of some critical value. If the problem is of interior drainage of an area, then the data series must
consist of the volume of water above a particular threshold.

The term ‘adequate’ primarily refers to the length of data. The length of data primarily depends
upon variability of data; and hence, there is no guideline for the length of data to be used for
frequency analysis.

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The term 'accurate primarily refers to the homogeneity of data and accuracy of the discharge
figures. The data used for analysis should not have any effect of man-made changes. Changes
The stage discharge relationship may render stage records non-homogeneous and unsuitable for
frequency analysis. It is therefore preferable to work with discharges; and if stage frequencies are
required, then the most recent rating curve is used.

Watershed history and flood records should be carefully examined to ensure that no major
watershed changes have occurred during the period of record. Only those records, which
represent relatively constant watershed conditions, should be used for frequency analysis. The
fundamental terms related to statistics are explained. In the following section, some of the
popular methods used in flood frequency analysis are explained with suitable examples.

Flood

- Is an unusually high stage in a river, normally the level at which the river overflows
its banks and inundates the adjoining area. The damages caused by floods in terms of
loss of life, property and economic loss due to disruption of economic activity are all
too well known.

- In the design of practically all hydraulic structures, the peak flow that can be expected
with an assigned frequency (say 1 in 100 years) is of primary importance to
adequately proportion the structure to accommodate its effect. The design of bridges,
culvert waterways and spillways for dams and estimation of scour at a hydraulic
structure are some examples wherein flood-peak values are required.

Flood Routing

- Is the technique of determining the flood hydrograph at a section of a river by

utilizing the data of flood flow at one or more upstream sections. The hydrologic
analysis of problems such as flood forecasting, flood protection, reservoir design and
spillway design invariably include flood routing. In these applications two broad
categories of routing can be recognized. These are:

1. Reservoir Routing

- In reservoir routing the effect of a flood wave entering a reservoir is studied.

Reservoir routing is
essential:

a. In the design of the capacity of spillways and other reservoir outlet structures
b. In the location and sizing of the capacity of reservoirs to meet specific requirements.

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2. Channel Routing

- In channel routing the change in the shape of a hydrograph as it travels down a

channel is studied.

Flood Control

- Is commonly used to denote all the measures adopted to reduce damages to life and
property by floods.

- Currently, many people prefer to use the term flood management instead of flood
control as it reflects the activity more realistically.

The control measures that are in used can be classified as:

1. STRUCTURAL MEASURES :
a. Storage and detention reservoirs
b. Flood ways (new channels)
c. Watershed Management
d. Levees (flood embankments)
e. Channel improvement

2. NON-STRUCTURAL METHODS :
a. Flood plain zoning
b. Evacuation and relocation
c. Flood forecast/ warning
d. Flood insurance

1. Structural Methods

a. Storage Reservoirs

- Offer one of the most reliable and effective methods of flood control. Ideally, in this
method, a part of the storage in the reservoir is kept apart to absorb the incoming
flood. Further, the stored water is released in a controlled way over an extended tie so
that downstream channels do not get flooded.

b. Detention Reservoirs

- A detention reservoir consists of an obstruction to a river with an uncontrolled outlet.

These are essentially small structures and operate to reduce the flood peak by
providing temporary storage and by restriction of the outflow rate.

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c. Leeves

- Also known as dikes or flood embankments are earthen banks constructed parallel to
the course of the river to confine it to a fixed course and limited cross-sectional width.
The heights of levees will be higher than the design flood level with sufficient
freeboard.

d. Floodways

- are natural channels into which a part of the flood will be diverted during high stages.
A floodway can be a natural or man-made channel and its location is controlled
essentially by the topography. Floodways offer an economical alternative to other
structural flood control measures.

e. Channel improvement

- The works under this category involve:

 Widening or deepening of the channel to increase the cross-sectional area.

 Reduction of the channel roughness, by clearing of vegetation of vegetation from
the
channel perimeter.
 Short circuiting of meander loops by cutoff channels, leading to increased slopes.

f. Watershed Management

- Aims to cutting down and delaying the runoff before it gets into the river. Watershed
management measures include developing the vegetative and soil cover in
conjunction with land treatment words like nala bunds, check dams, contour bunding,
zing terraces, etc.

2. Non-Structural Methods

a. Flood Plain Zoning

- When the river discharges are very high, it is to be expected that the river will
overflow its banks and spill into flood plains. In view of the increasing pressure of
population, these basic aspects of the river are disregarded and there are greater
encroachment of floodplains by man leading to distress.

b. Flood Forecasting and Warning

- Forecasting of floods sufficiently in advance enables a warning to be given to the

people likely to be affected and further enables civil authorities to take appropriate
precautionary measures.

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- The flood forecasting techniques can be broadly divided into three categories:

 Sort range forecast

 Medium range forecast
 Long range forecast

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