Q.

What happens to the atomic number and mass number of daughter element as compared to the
parent element as a result of alpha emission?

A. We know that atomic number is the number of protons present in the element. In alpha decay, an
alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons) is given out. Therefore, the number of protons and,
consequently, the atomic number decreases by two. Now, the confusion starts. Interestingly, there are
two types of beta decay: beta plus and beta minus. In beta+ decay, a proton gets converted to neutron
and a positron (antiparticle of electron, having a positive charge) is emitted (so beta+). So, A.N.
decreases (since a proton is lost). In beta- decay, a neutron gets converted to proton and electron is
released (so beta-). Therefore, A.N. increases by one (since a proton is gained).So, in alpha decay A.N.
decreases by two. In beta+ decay, it decreases by one. And finally in beta- decay, it increases by one.

Q. What is zero order reaction?

A. Zero-order reactions are typically found when a material that is required for the reaction to proceed,
such as a surface or a catalyst, is saturated by the reactants. A reaction is zero-order if concentration
data is plotted versus time and the result is a straight line.

Q. Show how free energy change determines whether a chemical reaction will be spontaneous or not?

A. When ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative, ΔG will not be negative at any temperature.

There would be no spontaneous reaction. When ΔH is positive and ΔS is positive, ΔG will be negative at
high temperatures. Therefore, finally it is the change in free energy of
a reaction which can predict if a reaction is feasible.

Q. Why do we balance a chemical equation?

A. The chemical equation needs to be balanced so that it follows the law of conservation of mass. A

balanced chemical equation occurs when the number of the different atoms of elements in the
reactants side is equal to that of the products side. Balancing chemical equations is a process of trial and
error.

Q. What is Avogadro’s number?

A. Avogadro's number is a proportion that relates molar mass on an atomic scale to physical
mass on a human scale. Avogadro's number is defined as the number of elementary particles
(molecules, atoms, compounds, etc.) per mole of a substance. It is equal to 6.022×1023 mol-
1
 and is expressed as the symbol NA.

Q. Give the valencies of Na, Ca, Cl and O?

A. 1, 2, -1, 2

Q. Define the equivalent conductance of an electrolyte?

A. The equivalent conductance of an electrolyte isdefined as the conductance of a volume of

solution containing one equivalent weight of dissolved substance when placed between two
parallel electrodes 1 cm apart, and large enough to contain between them all of the solution.
Q. What is half-life period of a chemical reaction?

A. The half-life of a reaction is the time required for the reactant concentration to decrease to
one-half its initial value. The half-life of a first-order reaction is a constant that is related to the
rate constant for the reaction: t1/2 = 0.693/k. Radioactive decay reactions are first-order
reactions.

Q. Give two modes of shifting the chemical equilibrium?

A. According to Le Chatelier's principle, adding additional reactant to a system will shift

the equilibrium to the right, towards the side of the products. Or, if we remove reactants from the
system, equilibrium will also be shifted to the left.

Q. Write the Nernst equation for emf of a cell?

A. In electrochemistry, the Nernst equation is an equation that relates the reduction potential of

an electrochemical reaction (half-cell or full cell reaction) to the standard electrode potential,
temperature, and activities (often approximated by concentrations) of the chemical species
undergoing reduction and oxidation .

Q. Boyle’s law?

A.  Boyle's Law, an ideal gas law which states that the volume of an ideal gas is inversely
proportional to its absolute pressure at a constant temperature. In other words, the product of
pressure and volume is constant for a fixed mass of ideal gas at fixed temperature.

Q. Charles Law?

A. Charles' Law is a special case of the ideal gas law. It states that the volume of a fixed mass
of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature. This law applies to ideal gases held at a
constant pressure, where only the volume and temperature are allowed to change.

Q. Avogadro’s law?

A. Avogadro's law, a statement that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure,
equal volumes of different gases contain an equal number of molecules. This empirical relation
can be derived from the kinetic theory of gases under the assumption of a perfect (ideal) gas.

Q. Derivation of ideal gas equation?

A. AVOGADRO'S LAW states the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of

moles. BOYLE'S LAW states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. CHARLES'S
LAW states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature.

There are several ways to derive the Ideal Gas Law, but the simplest way is to use the three simple gas
laws.
AVOGADRO'S LAW states the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles.
V∝n
BOYLE'S LAW states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
V ∝ 1/P
CHARLES'S LAW states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature.
V∝T
If we combine these laws, we get
V ∝ nT/P
We covert the proportionality to an equality
V = knT/P
We replace k with the universal gas constant R and get
V = nRT/P
This can be rearranged to give the IDEAL GAS LAW
PV = nRT

Q. Henry’s law?

A. Henry's law is one of the gas laws, formulated by the British chemist, William Henry, in 1803. It states
that: At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of
liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid.

Q. Raoult’s law?

A. a law stating that the freezing and boiling points of an ideal solution are respectively depressed and
elevated relative to that of the pure solvent by an amount proportional to the mole fraction of solute.
A law stating that the vapour pressure of an ideal solution is proportional to the mole fraction of solvent.

Q. Internal Energy?

A. In thermodynamics, the internal energy of a thermodynamic system, or a body with well-

defined boundaries, denoted by U, or sometimes E, is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion
of molecules (translational, rotational, vibrational) and the potential energy associated with the
vibrational and electric energy.

Q. Enthalpy?

A. A thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system. It is equal to the internal
energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume. The change in enthalpy associated with a
particular chemical process. "Most compounds have negative enthalpies of formation"

Q. Entropy?

A. a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system's thermal energy for conversion
into mechanical work, often interpreted as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system.

"The second law of thermodynamics says that entropy always increases with time"
 Q. Free energy?

A. The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform.
The concept is useful in the thermodynamics of chemical or thermal processes in engineering and
science. The free energy is the internal energy of a system minus the amount of energy that cannot be
used to perform work.

Q. Relation between in entropy, enthalpy and free energy?

A. Gibbs free energy combines enthalpy and entropy into a single value. Gibbs free energy is

the energy associated with a chemical reaction that can do useful work. It equals
the enthalpy minus the product of the temperature and entropy of the system. ... If ΔG is
positive, then the reaction is non-spontaneous.

Q. Water borne diseases and control measures?

A. Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that most commonly are
transmitted in contaminated fresh water. Infection commonly results during bathing, washing,
drinking, in the preparation of food, or the consumption of food thus infected. Various forms of
waterborne diarrheal disease probably are the most prominent examples, and affect mainly children
in developing countries; according to the World Health Organization, such diseases account for an
estimated 4.1% of the total DALY global burden of disease, and cause about 1.8 million human deaths
annually. The complete picture of water-associated diseases is complex for some different reasons.
Over a period of decades, the picture of water-related human health issues has become more and
more comprehensive, with the emergence of new water-related infection diseases and the re-
emergence of ones we already know about. Data is available for some water, hygiene-related and
sanitation diseases such as cholera, salmonellosis, or shigellosis. Yet for others such as schisto
somiasis, malaria, or more modern infections such as SARS CoV or legionellosis the analysis has yet to
be performed. The burden of a number of disease groups may only partly be attributed to water
determinants. Even where water has an essential role in the ecology of diseases, it might be difficult
to pinpoint the relative importance of water components of the local ecosystem.

Water-borne diseases include the following:

 Polio
 Malaria
 Cholera
 Dengue
 Scabies
 Typhoid
 Anaemia
There are several ways to prevent these illnesses:
Use good environmental management. Flush or discard any stool in the toilet and clean surrounding
area using hot water and detergent.  A chlorine-based disinfectant is recommended. 
Practice good personal hygiene. Frequent and careful hand washing is important among all age groups. 
Hand washing of children should be supervised.  Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water for at
least 20 seconds, rubbing hands together vigorously and scrubbing all surfaces.

 Wash hands thoroughly after using the toilet, changing a diaper or cleaning up a child who has
used the toilet, and before and after tending to someone who is ill with diarrhea.
 Wash hands after handling animals, contact with animal quarters, cleaning up animal feces, or
gardening.
 Wash hands before and after preparing food or eating. 

Take food safety precautions to learn about the fundamentals of food safety so that you can protect
yourself, your friends, family and people in your community.

 Wash and/or peel all raw vegetables and fruits before eating. 
 Drink and eat only pasteurized dairy products (milk, cheese, yogurt and ice cream) and juices.
 Thoroughly cook all meats (meat, poultry and seafood). For example, ground beef should be
cooked to an internal temperature of 71°C/160°F.
 Wash hands, kitchen work surfaces and utensils after contact with raw meat or poultry.
 Wash hands before handling food and between handling different food items. 
 Prevent contact of cooked foods with raw foods (i.e., raw meat, and poultry).
 Clean and sanitize all utensils, equipment and surfaces (cutting boards, work counters, etc.)
before and after each use. Be sure to use hot water and detergent to clean, then rinse with hot
water. Sanitize food contact surfaces with a sanitizing solution
 Avoid preparing food for others while you have symptoms and for 48 hours after you recover.

Drink properly treated water.  Water from private water supplies should be routinely tested twice a
year for Total Coliform and E.coli.  Inorganic analysis on private water supplies should preferably be
done every two to three years 

 Do not swallow water while swimming in swimming pools, hot tubs or interactive fountains,
lakes, rivers, springs, ponds, streams or the ocean.
 Do not drink untreated water from lakes, rivers, springs, ponds, streams, or shallow wells. 
 Do not drink tap water or use ice while travelling to a high-risk destination unless the water
source has been properly treated.

Q. Microorganisms present in water and waste water and their effects on human health?

A. Of the many infectious microorganisms found in the environment, bacteria (such as Shigella,

Escherichia coli, Vibrio, and Salmonella), viruses (such as Norwalk virus and rotaviruses), and protozoans
(such as Entamoeba, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium) may be found in water.

pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, helminths and protozoa is present in wastewater
and they survive for days, weeks and at times months in the soil and on crops that come in contact with
wastewater. Early approaches to measuring the health risk from these pathogenic micro-organisms
centred on detection. Based upon the fact that these micro-organisms could survive, detection in any of
these environments was sufficient to indicate that a public health problem existed. It was then assumed
that such detection showed evidence that a real potential for disease transmission existed (Shuval et al.,
1986a; Shuval, 1991). This is a "zero-risk" approach. Throughout the years a number of standards and
guidelines have been developed on this zero-risk approach. This led to standards for wastewater use
that approached those of drinking water especially where vegetable crops were being grown.

Effectiveness of enteric pathogens to cause infections through wastewater irrigation related to their
epidemiological characteristics

Enteric Persistence in Minimum Immunity Concurrent routes Latency/soil

pathogens environment infective dose of infection development
stage
Viruses Medium Low Long Mainly home No
contact and food or
water
Bacteria Short/Medium Medium/High Short/Medium Mainly home No
contact and food or
water
Protozoa Short Low/Medium None/Little Mainly home No
contact and food or
water
Helminths Long Low None/Little Mainly soil contact Yes
outside home and
food

Whether a person becomes infected actually depends on a number of additional factors, each of which
adds to or diminishes the actual risk of infection. Feachem et al. (1983) and Shuval et al. (1986b)
reviewed these factors and found several that are important for determining the relative health risk
during wastewater use:

 Excreted load. This refers to the concentration of pathogens passed by an infected person and
represents the total number of pathogens.

 Latency. Latency refers to the interval between the time that a pathogen is excreted and the time
that it can infect a new host.

 Persistence. Viability of a pathogen in the environment or persistence is a measure of how quickly it

dies after leaving the human body.

 Multiplication. A measure of whether a pathogen can multiply outside the human body.

 Infective dose. Number of organisms needed to cause infection (this is not easy to predict).
  Host response. A measure of the response (immunity) once an individual has received a dose of an
infective agent.

 Non-human hosts. Some infections are confined strictly to humans while others may need an
intermediate host prior to reinfection.

developed a theoretical epidemiological model based on the above factors. The model looked at their
relationship to the probability that one of the four enteric pathogen groups described earlier would
cause infections in humans through wastewater irrigation. The following factors were considered
necessary to cause a high probability of infection:

 long persistence in the environment;

 low minimal infective dose;

 short or no human immunity;

 minimal concurrent transmission through other routes such as food, water and poor personal or
domestic hygiene; and

 long latent period and/or soil development stage required.

Table 4 presents the summary of how Shuval et al. (1986b) rated the five factors when considering the
enteric pathogen groups.

The Shuval model shows that helminth diseases, if they are endemic, will be very effectively transmitted
by irrigation with raw wastewater. On the other hand, the enteric virus diseases should be the least
effectively transmitted by irrigation with raw wastewater. The bacterial and protozoan diseases rank
between these two extremes. Shuval et al. (1986b) ranked the pathogens in the following descending
order of risk:

1. High: Helminths (the intestinal nematodes - Ascaris, Trichuris, hookworm and Taenia)

2. Lower: Bacterial infections (i.e. cholera, typhoid and shigellosis) and Protozoan infections (i.e.

ameobiasis, giardiasis)

3. Least: Viral infections (viral gastroenteritis and infectious hepatitis)

This ranking is consistent with the theoretical considerations noted by Feachem et al. (1983) where the
determinations were made on factors other than wastewater use. Shuval et al. (1986b) reviewed the
available epidemiological evidence to determine whether the theoretical model fitted the empirical
evidence. This review concluded that there is evidence of disease transmission in association with the
use of raw or partially treated wastewater. This evidence points most strongly to the helminths as the
number one problem, particularly in developing countries. There was limited transmission of bacterial
and virus disease. The empirical evidence therefore points to the usefulness of the theoretical model
and especially the priority ranking for the potential threat of disease transmission. The Shuval model
(Table 4) and the rationale behind the ranking of pathogens shown above were reviewed in the World
Bank/WHO-sponsored Engelberg Report (IRCWD, 1985) that obtained the endorsement of an
international group of environmental experts and epidemiologists.

Q. Atomic weight?

A. Atomic weight is the average mass of atoms of an element, calculated using the relative abundance
of isotopes in a naturally-occurring element. It is the weighted average of the masses of naturally-
occurring isotopes.

Q. Molecular Weight?

A.  Molecular weight is a measure of the sum of the atomic weight values of the atoms in

a molecule. Molecular weight is used in chemistry to determine stoichiometry in chemical reactions and
equations. ... Molecular weight is either unitless or expressed in terms of atomic mass units (amu) or
Daltons (Da).

Q. Equivalent weight?

A.  the mass of a substance especially in grams that combines with or is chemically equivalent to
eight grams of oxygen or one gram of hydrogen : the atomic or molecular weight divided by the
valence
Q. Valency of elements and compounds?

A.  Valency is the combining power of an element. Elements in the same group of the periodic table
have the same valency. The valency of an element is related to how many electrons are in the outer
shell.

Q. How to calculate equivalent weight of acids, bases, salts and oxidizing agents?

A. Equivalent weight of Acid:

For an acid, equivalent weight is the molecular weight divided by its basicity.i.e. Equivalent weight of
acid = Molecular weight of the acid/basicity

Basicity  of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen of an acid. In HCl there is one replaceable

hydrogen, so its basicity is one. In H 2SO4  there is 2 replaceable hydrogen so its basicity is two.

 Lets calculate equivalent weight of HCL and H 2SO4  .

For HCL;
 The molecular formula is  HCL is (1.008 + 35.6)  =36.451 gm. Basicity=1 Equivalent weight =  Molecular
weight / Basicity

                                = 36.451/1

                                = 36.451 gm

For H2SO4

The molecular formula is ( 2*1.008 + 32 + 4* 16) = 98gm.

Basicity =2

Equivalent weight = 98gm/2= 49 gm.

2. Equivalent weight of Base:

Equivalent weight of base = Molecular formula /Acidity

Acidity of base is the number of replaceable hydroxyl ion which is generated when dissolved in

water. The number of replaceable hydroxyl ion for NaOH is 1, so its acidity is 1. For ca(OH)2, there is

two replaceable hydroxyl ions, so its acidity is 2.

 Lets calculate equivalent weight of NaOH:

Molecular formula of NaOH is (23+ 16+ 1.008)= 40gm.

Acidity=1

Equivalent weight= 40/1

                               = 40 gm.

3. Equivalent weight of Salt:

For a salt, equivalent weight = Molecular formula / number of the charge on basic radical

For eg: Equivalent weight of NaCl= (23+35.5)/1

                                                            = 1
 Equivalent weight of Na2CO3 = (2*23+ 12+ 3*16)/2

                                                   = 106/2

                                                   = 53

4. Equivalent weight of Oxidant and Reductant:

Equivalent weight of oxidant or reductant = molecular weight/ no. of change in oxidation no of    Oxidant
and reductant.

For example,

When KMnO4 changes to MnSO4, the oxidation number of Mn changes from +7 to +2 state. The total
change in oxidation number is 5. So,

Equivalent weight of KMnO4 in acidic medium = molecular weight of KMnO4/5

                                                                                              = 161/5

                                                                                               = 32.2 gm

Q. Define acids and bases according to Arrhenius theory?

A. In 1884, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed two specific classifications of compounds,
termed acids and bases. When dissolved in an aqueous solution, certain ions were released into the
solution. As defined by Arrhenius, acid-base reactions are characterized by acids, which dissociate in
aqueous solution to form hydrogen ions (H +) and bases, which form hydroxide (OH −) ions.

Acids are defined as a compound or element that releases hydrogen (H +) ions into the solution (mainly
water).

NHO3(aq)+H2O(l)→H3O++NO−3(aq)(1)(1)NHO3(aq)+H2O(l)→H3O++NO3−(aq)

In this reaction nitric acid (HNO 3) disassociates into hydrogen (H+) and nitrate (NO3-) ions when dissolved
in water.  Bases are defined as a compound or element that releases hydroxide (OH -) ions into the
solution.

In this reaction lithium hydroxide (LiOH) dissociates into lithium (Li +) and hydroxide (OH-) ions when
dissolved in water.
Q. Ionization of acid and bases?

A. Ionization of Acids

The degree of Ionisation refers to the strength of an acid or a base. A strong acid is said to completely ionize
in water whereas a weak acid is said to only ionise partially. As there are different degrees of ionization of
acids, there are also different levels of weakness for which there is a simple quantitative way to express.

Since the ionization of a weak acid is an equilibrium, the chemical equation and an equilibrium constant
expression can be stated as :

HA ( aq ) + H2O ( l )   H3O+ ( aq ) + A–

Ka = [ H3O+ ] [A–] / [HA]

Equilibrium Constant for ionisation of an acid defines its Acid Ionisation Constant (Ka). However, the
stronger the acid, the larger will be the acid ionisation constant (Ka). This means that a strong acid is a better
proton donor. As a result of the concentration of the product in the numerator of the Ka, the stronger the
acid the larger is the acid ionisation constant (Ka).

Ionization of Bases

Some bases like lithium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide get completely dissociated into their ions in an
aqueous medium which is referred to as strong bases. Therefore, the ionisation of these bases yields
hydrochloric ions, as (OH–). A similar expression for the bases is:

A + H2O   OH– + HA+

 Kb = [ OH– ] [ HA+ ] / [ A ]

The base ionisation constant i.e Kb refers to the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of a base. Therefore,
we can say that a strong base implies a good proton acceptor while a strong acid implies a good proton
donor. The dissociation of weak acids or weak bases in water is:

CH3COOH + H2O ⇔ CH3COO‾ + H3O+

NH3 + H2O ⇔ NH4+ ( aq ) + OH‾( aq )

Q. Ionic product of water and how to arrive at ph?

A. But in pure water, the hydrogen ion (hydroxonium ion) concentration is always equal to the
hydroxide ion concentration. ... The product of concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in water at a particular
temperature is known as ionic product of water.

Pure water is a very weak electrolyte and ionises according to the equation H2O ↔ H+ + OH Applying
law of mass action at equilibrium, the value of dissociation constant, K comes to K = [H+] [OH- ]/[H2O] or
[H+][OH- ] = K[H20] Since dissociation takes place to a very small extent, the concentration of
undissociated water molecules, [H20], may be regarded as constant. Thus, the product #[H20] gives
another constant which is designated as Kw. So, [H+][OH- ] = Kw The constant, Kw, is termed as ionic
product of water. The product of concentrations of H1 and OH ions in water at a particular temperature
is known as ionic product of water. The value of Kw increases with the increase of temperature, i.e., the
concentration of H+ and OH- ions increases with increase in temperature. Temperature (°C) Value of Kw
0 0.11 x 10-14 10 0.31 x 10-14 25 1.00 x 10-14 100 7.50 x 10-14 The value of Kw at 25°C is 1 x 10-14.
Since pure water is neutral in nature, H+ ion concentration must be equal to OH- ion concentration. [H+]
= [OH˜] = x or [H+][OH- ]=x2 = 1 x 10-14 or x = 1 x 10-7 M or [H+] = [OH- ] = 1 × 10-7 mol litre-1 This
shows that at 25°C, in 1 litre only 10-7 mole of water is in ionic form out of a total of approximately 55.5
moles. When an acid or a base is added to water, the ionic concentration product, [H+][OH- ], remains
constant, i.e., equal to Kw but concentrations of H+ and OH- ions do not remain equal. The addition of
acid increases the hydrogen ion concentration while that of hydroxyl ion concentration decreases, i.e.,
[H+] > [OH- ]; (Acidic solution) Similarly, when a base is added, the OH- ion concentration increases while
H+ ion concentration decreases, i.e., [OH- ] > [H+]; (Alkaline or basic solution) In neutral solution, [H+] =
[OH- ] = 1 x 10-7 M In acidic solution, [H+] > [OH- ] or [H+] > 1 x 10-7 M and [OH- ] < 1 x 10-7 M In
alkaline solution, [OH- ] > [H+] or [OH- ] > 1 × 10-7 M and [H+] < 1 x 10-7 M Thus, if the hydrogen ion
concentration is more than 1 x 10-7 M, the solution will be acidic in nature and if less than 1 x 10-7 M,
the solution will be alkaline. [H+] = 10-0 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10˜6 (Acidic) [H+] = 10-7 (Neutral) [H+]
= 10-14 10-13 10-12 10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 (Alkaline) We shall have the following table if OH- ion
concentration is taken into account. [OH- ] = 10-14 10-13 10-12 10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 (Acidic) [OH- ] =
10-7 (Neutral) [OH- ] = 10-0 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 (Alkaline) It is, thus, concluded that every
aqueous solution, whether acidic, neutral or alkaline contains both H+ and OH- ions. The product of
their concentrations is always constant, equal to 1 × 10-14 at 25°C. If one increases, the other decrease
accordingly so that the product remains 1×10-14 at 25o C. If [H+] = 10-2 M, then [OH- ] = 10-12 M; the
product, [H+][OH- ] = 10-2 × 10-12 = 10-14; the solution is acidic. If [H+] = 10-10 M, then [OH- ] = 10-4 M;
the product, [H+][OH- ] = 10-10 × 10-4 = 10- 14; the solution is alkaline.

Q. Account of disinfecting action of chlorine?

A. Chlorine is one of the most widely used disinfectants. It is very applicable and very effective for the
deactivation of pathogenic microorganisms. Chlorine can be easily applied, measures and controlled. Is
is fairly persistent and relatively cheap.
Chlorine has been used for applications, such as the deactivation of pathogens in drinking
water, swimming pool water and wastewater, for the disinfection of household areas and for textile
bleaching, for more than two hundred years. When chlorine was discovered we did not know that
disease was caused by microorganisms. In the nineteenth century doctors and scientists discovered that
many diseases are contagious and that the spread of disease can be prevented by the disinfection of
hospital areas. Very soon afterward, we started experimenting with chlorine as a disinfectant. In 1835
doctor and writer Oliver Wendel Holmes advised midwifes to wash their hands in calcium hypochlorite
(Ca(ClO)2-4H2O) to prevent a spread of midwifes fever.
However, we only started using disinfectants on a wider scale in the nineteenth century, after Louis
Pasteur discovered that microorganisms spread certain diseases.
Chlorine has played an important role in lenghthening the life-expectancy of humans.
For more information about pathogens in aquatic systems, please take a look at pathogens in freshwater
ecosystems
Chlorine kills pathogens such as bacteria and viruses by breaking the chemical bonds in their molecules.
Disinfectants that are used for this purpose consist of chlorine compounds which can exchange atoms
with other compounds, such as enzymes in bacteria and other cells. When enzymes come in contact
with chlorine, one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the molecule are replaced by chlorine. This causes
the entire molecule to change shape or fall apart. When enzymes do not function properly, a cell or
bacterium will die.

When chlorine is added to water, underchloric acids form:

Cl2  + H2O -> HOCl + H+  + Cl-

Depending on the pH value, underchloric acid partly expires to hypochlorite ions:

Cl2  + 2H2O -> HOCl + H3O + Cl-
HOCl + H2O -> H3O+  + OCl-

This falls apart to chlorine and oxygen atoms:

OCl-  -> Cl-  + O

Underchloric acid (HOCl, which is electrically neutral) and hypochlorite ions (OCl -, electrically negative)
will form free chlorine when bound together. This results in disinfection. Both substances have very
distinctive behaviour. Underchloric acid is more reactive and is a stronger disinfectant than hypochlorite.
Underchloric acid is split into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and atomair oxygen (O). The oxygen atom is a
powerful disinfectant.
The disinfecting properties of chlorine in water are based on the oxidising power of the free oxygen
atoms and on chlorine substitution reactions.
Figure 5: the neutral underchloric acid can better penetrate cell walls of pathogenic microorganisms that
the negatively charged hypochlorite ion
The cell wall of pathogenic microorganisms is negatively charged by nature. As such, it can be
penetrated by the neutral underchloric acid, rather than by the negatively charged hypochlorite ion.
Underchloric acid can penetrate slime layers, cell walls and protective layers of microorganisms and
effectively kills pathogens as a result. The microorganisms will either die or suffer from reproductive
failure.

The effectivity of disinfection is determined by the pH of the water. disinfection with chlorine will take
place optimally when the pH is between 5,5 and 7,5. underchloric acid (HOCl) reacts faster than
hypochlorite ions (OCl-); it is 80-100% more effective. The level of underchloric acid will decrease when
the pH value is higher. With a pH value of 6 the level of underchloric acid is 80%, whereass the
concentration of hypochlorite ions is 20%. When the pH value is 8, this is the other way around.
When the pH value is 7,5, concentrations of underchloric acid and hypochlorite ions are equally high.
Q. Break point chlorination with a neat sketch?

A. Breakpoint chlorination is the point where chlorine levels exceed the oxidant demand, and the water
begins to build a residual of free available chlorine (FAC). Theoretically, exceeding the “breakpoint”
prevents increased levels of disinfectant byproducts (like chloramines).
What happens when chlorine is added to a pool?

Let's look at the graph above. When you first add chlorine to water, it immediately begins to oxidize
metals like iron and manganese. This initial reaction wipes out a certain portion of chlorine, which is why
nothing shows up on the graph until point (A). As you continue to add chlorine to water, it reacts on
contact with other contaminants—not just germs, but non-living organics too—which creates
byproducts. The ammonia and nitrogen-based contaminants (NH 3) become variations of chloramines
when met with chlorine. This will be explained more in depth in a moment...but know that chloramines
actually carry some disinfection potential, therefore adding to the total chlorine level...initially.

The chemical reaction that creates Monochloramine (NH 2Cl) looks like this:

2NH3  + 2HOCl  →  2NH2Cl  + 2H2O

Ammonia + Hypochlorous Acid yields Monochloramine + Water

Further chlorination of monochloramine creates Dichloramine (NHCl 2):

2NH2Cl + 2HOCl  →  2NHCl2  + 2H2O

Monochloramine + Hypochlorous Acid yields Dichloramine + Water

And of course, even further chlorination yields the most noxious of chloramines that off-gasses from
pools, Nitrogen Trichloride, aka Trichloramine (NCl 3):

NHCl2  + 3HOCl  →  NCl3  + 3H2O

Dichloramine + Hypochlorous Acid yields Trichloramine + Water

All of these reactions depend on pH and temperature.

Chloramines are weak disinfectants

As noted before, chloramines are disinfectants--which is why they are referred to as disinfectant
byproducts (DBPs). In fact, many water treatment plants add chloramines to their water as a secondary
disinfectant.  Albeit weak and slow, chloramines first contribute to the total chlorine levels because they
help with disinfection. This, however, reaches a threshold where chlorine turns on chloramines,
indicated at point (B). In other words, chlorine oxidizes all contaminants, which includes chloramines
after point (B) on the graph. That's why the total chlorine level drops with the addition of more free
chlorine (the X axis on the graph).

The downward trend on the graph shows chlorine starting to "win the fight" against contaminants until
it oxidizes all but the combined chlorine residual. This level of chlorine residual is shown on the graph
at point (C).  If chlorine cannot overcome the oxidant demand, your water's chlorine demand rises, and
the ORP drops. This would look like a more prolonged downward trend toward breakpoint, because
breakpoint would be at a much higher dose of chlorine. When the chlorine can meet the oxidant
demand, the water has reached breakpoint chlorination.

After breakpoint is achieved, a free chlorine residual builds

Only after the oxidant demand has been addressed can disinfection occur. Therefore, only after
breakpoint chlorination has been exceeded can a residual of free chlorine build. Up until that point,
chlorine has its hands full trying to oxidize its way to breakpoint.

Shameless product plug: Part of our mantra of more meaningful pool care is increasing chlorine
efficiency and reducing chlorine demand. On the graph above, that would mean reaching breakpoint
earlier, with less chlorine in the water. This can be achieved by using our CV-600 or CV-700 enzymes to
help address the bather load (oxidant demand). The less non-living organic contamination in the water,
the faster chlorine can reach breakpoint and build a residual of free available chlorine.

Another Orenda product to help improve chlorine efficiency is PR-10,000 phosphate remover. Removing
phosphates reduces the dissociation of Hydrogen from hypochlorous acid (HOCl), meaning you have
more of the strong chlorine. The video at the end of this article explains more about weakening chlorine.

Free available chlorine (FAC) is needed as a residual sanitizer in the water. Combined chlorine (CC) is

the used-up chlorine that combined with ammonia and other oxidants prior to reaching breakpoint.
Combined chlorine includes chloramines, as described earlier. Many pool operators refer to combined
chlorine as chloramines. It is the most direct measurement of disinfectant byproducts we can test
for. Total available chlorine (TAC) = FAC + CC. We measure all types of chlorine in parts-per-million.

Just remember, test kits cannot tell the difference between hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and its
dissociated, weak form, hypochlorite ion (OCl-). So even though you may read a good amount of free
available chlorine (FAC), if your pH is high or you have high phosphates, you may still have weak chlorine
in your water. If so, your ORP reading will reflect it.
You can calculate any of the three with addition and subtraction.  Most test kits measure free and total
chlorine, so you simply subtract:

Total Chlorine - Free Chlorine = Combined Chlorine

To eliminate the ammonia-based chloramine byproducts, it takes a 12:1 ratio of chlorine to chloramines
to reach breakpoint. Does that sound efficient to you? We don't think so.

Q. Methods of expressing concentration of an aqueous solution?

A. The concentration of a solution can be expresses in a number of ways. The important methods are:  

Mass/Weight Percentage or Per cent by Mass/Weight :  

It is defined as the amount of solute in grams present in 100 grams of the solution.    

 The ratio mass of solute to the mass of solvent is termed as mass fraction.

 Thus, Mass percentage of solute = Mass fraction × 100  

 10% solution of sugar  by mass means that 10 grams of sugar is present in 100 grams of the
solution, i.e., 10 grams of sugar has been dissolved in 90 grams of water.

Volume Percentage
 It is defined as the volume of solute in mL present in 100 mL solution.    

 10% solution of HCl by volume means that 10 mL of liquid HCl is present in 100 mLof the
solution. 

Mass by Volume Percentage 

 It is defined as the mass of solute present in 100 mL of solution.    

 A 10% mass by volume solution means that 10 gm solute is present in 100 mL of solution. 
Molarity
 The molarity of a solution gives the number of gram molecules of the solute present in one litre
of the solution.

 Thus, if one gram molecule of a solute is present in 1 litre of the solution, the concentration of
the solution is said to be one molar.
 Units of molarity: mol L-1
Molarity of dilution:  
Before dilution                After dilution  
        M1V1                =              M2V2  
Molarity of mixing:  
Let there be three samples of solution (containing same solvent and solute) with their molarity M 1, M2,
M3 and volumes V1, V2, V3 respectively. These solutions are mixed; molarity of mixed solution may be
given as:  
M1V1 + M2V2 + M3V3 = MR(V1 + V2 + V3)  
Where MR = resultant molarity         
V1 + V2 + V3 = resultant molarity  

Molarity is dependent on volume; therefore, it depends on temperature.

 1 M → Molar solution, i.e., molarity is 1  

 0.5 M or M/2 →  Semimolar  
 0.1 M or M/10 → Decimolar  
 0.01 M or M/100 → Centimolar  
 0.001 M or M/1000 → Millimolar

Molality
 Molality of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 Kg of the
solvent.

 Thus, if one gram molecule of a solute is present in 1 kg of the solvent, the concentration of the
solution is said to be one molal.
 Units of molarity: mol kg-1???
 Molality is the most convenient method to express the concentration because it involves the
mass of liquids rather than their volumes. It is also independent of the variation in temperature.
 Molality and solubity are related by the following relation.
Molality = Solubility×10/Molecular mass of the solute
[Solubility = Mass of solute in grams/Mass of solvent in grams × 100]

Q. what is chemical bond , name different types of chemical bond

Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms together to make compounds or

molecules. Chemical bonds include covalent, mettalic, and ionic bonds.

Ionic bonds form due to the transfer of an electron from one atom to another. Covalent
bonds involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms.  Metallic bonding is the
force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal ions.

Q state Dalton’s law of partial pressure?

Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that in a mixture of

non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of the individual gases.

Q Give two modes of shifting the chemical equilibrium?

When a reaction at equilibrium is disturbed, it will shift to the right or the left to return
to equilibrium. Shifting to the right means some reactants are consumed and more
products are made. Shifting to the left means some products are consumed and more
reactants are made.

Q what is galvanization?

Galvanization or galvanizing is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to
prevent rusting.

Q Define vapor pressure of a liquid?

Vapour pressure can be defined as pressure formed by the vapor of the liquid (or

solid) over the surface of the liquid. This pressure is formed in a thermodynamic
equilibrium state in a closed container at a certain temperature. Liquid's evaporation
rate is identified by the equilibrium vapor pressure.

Q what is artificial transmutation of elements?

Artificial Transmutation of Elements. The conversion of one element into another

by artificial means, i.e., by means of bombarding with some fundamental particles, is
known as artificial transmutation. The phenomenon was first applied on nitrogen
whose nucleus was bombarded with a-particles to produce oxygen.

Q write a short note on Common Ion effect?

The common-ion effect states that in a chemical solution in which several species reversibly

associate with each other by an equilibrium process, increasing the concentration of any one of its
dissociated components by adding another chemical that also contains it will cause an increased
amount of association.[1] This result is a consequence of Le Chatelier's principle for the equilibrium
reaction of the association/dissociation. The effect is commonly seen as an effect on
the solubility of salts and other weak electrolytes. Adding an additional amount of one of the ions of
the salt generally leads to increased precipitation of the salt, which reduces the concentration of both
ions of the salt until the solubility equilibrium is reached. The effect is based on the fact that both the
original salt and the other added chemical have one ion in common with each other.