Unit 4.

Adverbs and adverbials

(Cf. Greenbaum & Quirk 1990: 147-151, 158-163, 184-187)

1. Characteristics of the adverb

Two types of syntactic functions characterize the traditional adverbs:

(a) clause element adverbial: He quite forgot about it

(b) premodifier of adjective and adverb: They are quite happy.

Morphologically, we can distinguish three types of adverb, of which two are closed classes
(simple and compound), and one is an open class (derivational):

(a) SIMPLE adverbs, eg: just, only, well, back, down, near, out, under.
(b) COMPOUND adverbs, eg: somehow, somewhere, therefore.
(c) DERIVATIONAL adverbs, eg: odd  oddly; interesting  interestingly

The majority of derivational adverbs have the suffix –ly, by means of which new adverbs are
created from adjectives (and participial adjectives). Other derivational suffixes are:
-wise: clockwise, crabwise, moneywise -ways: sideways
-ward(s): northward(s) -style: cowboy-style
-fashion: schoolboy-fashion

The creation of adverbs from adjectives by adding –ly is closely related to the dynamic use of
the adjective; therefore, -ly adverbs are not formed from stative adjectives:
Dynamic: cheerful  cheerfully; jealous  jealously
Stative: big *bigly; tall  *tally

2. Syntactic functions of adverbs

2.1. Adverb as clause element adverbial (see § 3)

ADJUNCTS and SUBJUNCTS are relatively integrated within the structure of the clause.
Adjuncts have grammatical properties resembling the sentence elements S, C and O:
Slowly they walked back home.
He spoke to me about it briefly.

Subjuncts have a subordinate role in comparison to adjuncts:

We haven’t yet finished.
Would you kindly wait for me?

DISJUNCTS and CONJUNCTS have a more peripheral relation in the sentence. Disjuncts
express an evaluation of what is being said with respect to the form of the communication or to
its meaning:
Frankly, I’m tired.
Wisely, Mrs Jensen consulted her lawyer.

Conjuncts express the speaker’s assessment of how he views the connection between two
linguistic units:
She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money.
The candidate has written a successful, lengthy, popular, and in addition highly
original novel.

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2.2. Adverb as modifier

2.2.1. Modifier of adjective

An adverb may premodify an adjective:

extremely dangerous really beautiful

easily debatable quietly assertive
economically weak technically possible

2.2.2. Modifier of adverb and preposition

An adverb may premodify another adverb:

very heavily surprisingly well

A few intensifying adverbs can premodify particles in phrasal verbs, as well as prepositions:
He knocked the man right out.
The nail went right through the wall.

2.2.3. Modifier of pronoun, determiner, and numeral

Intensifying adverbs can premodify:
(a) indefinite pronouns:
Nearly everybody came to our party.
(b) predeterminers:
They recovered roughly half their equipment.
He receives about double the amount he expected.
(c) Cardinal numerals:
Over/under two hundred deaths were reported.
(d) Ordinals and superlatives:
We counted approximately the first thousand votes.
She gave me almost the largest piece of cake.

2.2.4. Modifier of noun phrase

A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases and precede the determiner when they do so.
The most common among adverbs are quite and rather:
We had quite a party.
It was rather a mess.

The predeterminers such and what have a similar function:

He is such a fool.
What a mess they made!

Postmodifying adverbs appear to be limited to those denoting time and place:

the meeting yesterday the day before
her trip abroad the way ahead

Others may either premodify or postmodify:

the downstairs hall the hall downstairs
the backstage noise the noise backstage

2.3. Adverb as complement of preposition

A number of adverbs signifying place and time function as complements of a preposition.
over here since recently
near there till then

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3. The semantics and grammar of adverbials
(Cf. Greenbaum & Quirk 1990: ch. 8; Mackenzie & Martínez Caro 2012; ch. 11)

When adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, and other structures function as part of an element
in the sentence structure they cannot be regarded as “adverbials”. Thus the units very beautifully
and in the garage are adverbials in (1) and (2), respectively, but are not adverbials in (3) and
(4), where they operate as part of phrases which realize other elements in the sentence structure:

1. The girl was dressed very beautifully.

2. I keep a spare bicycle in the garage.
3. I saw a very beautifully dressed girl.
4. I keep the bicycle in the garage well oiled.

Position: Although the position of subjects, objects, complements, and verb phrases
within clauses is quite strictly fixed, adverbials are extremely mobile. For example, the
adverbial, “very probably” can be placed correctly in four different places in the
following sentence (marked by “X”):
Example: [X] The villagers [X] have [X] been going into the woods to hunt [X].

(The final position would be unusual but grammatical.)

3.1. Adjuncts

There are three distinct types ranging in “centrality” from the obligatory predication
adjunct to the sentence adjunct whose position is more variable and whose presence is
always optional.
Adjuncts have grammatical properties resembling the sentence elements S, C, and O.
(See Greenbaum & Quirk 1990: 162-163)

1. They can be the focus of a cleft sentence:

Hilda (S) helped Tony (O) because of his injury (A)
It was Hilda that helped Tony because of his injury.
It was Tony that Hilda helped because of his injury.
It was because of his injury that Hilda helped Tony

2. They can be elicited by question forms:

Who helped Tony? Hilda (S)
Who(m) did Hilda help? Tony (O)
Why did Hilda help Tony? Because of his injury (A)
(Cf also When, Where, How, How long, How well, etc.)

3. They can be contrasted in alternative interrogation or negation:

Did Hilda help Tony because of his injury or to please her mother?
Hilda didn’t help Tony because of his injury but because she was bored.

3.1.2. Predication adjuncts

1. She put the letter on the kitchen table. (Obligatory adjunct)
2. She found the letter on the kitchen table. (Optional adjunct)

3.1.3 Sentence adjuncts

1. (I looked everywhere for it and eventually) I found the letter in the kitchen.
(Predicational A)

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2. (I had totally forgotten about the matter, but then, almost by chance,) I found the
letter (,) in the kitchen. (Sentence A)
3.1.4 The semantic roles of adjuncts

a. Adjuncts of space
They are on the Continent. (Position)
They walked down the hill. (Direction)
They travelled several miles (Distance)

b. Adjuncts of time
We were in France last year. (Position)
They visit her every month . (Frequency)
I shall be in Chicago until Thursday. (Duration)
When did you previously go to the dentist? (Time-relationship)

c. Process adjuncts
She looked at him coldly. (Manner)
He was killed by a terrorist. (Agency)
She influenced me by her example. (Means)
He was killed with a hunting knife. (Instrument)

d. Adjuncts of respect
A neighbour is advising me legally. (“with respect to law”)
She helped me with my research.

e. Adjuncts of contingency
There were many deaths from malnutrition. (Cause)
She’s applying for a better job. (Purpose)

Relative position of Adjuncts:

Where Adjuncts cluster in E position, the normal order is:
respect – process – space – time –contingency

Where two or more space adjuncts co-occur at E position, they are ordered as follows:
distance-direction (source, goal)-position:
She walked a few steps (A1) towards him (A2) in the darkened room (A3)

Space and time adjuncts can be in hierarchical relation, usually with the one denoting
the longer or superordinate period coming second:
Many people eat in restaurants (A1) in London (A2)
I’ll see you at nine (A1) on Monday (A2)
The doctor wants to see you again (A1) afterwards (A2)

3.2 Subjuncts
Subjuncts have a subordinate role in comparison with other clause elements. They are
chiefly related to the predication or to a particular part of the predication.

Emphasizers
Emphasizers have a reinforcing effect on the value of the clause or part of the clause to
which they apply.

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 I just/really/simply can't believe a word he says!

Intensifiers
Intensifiers are broadly concerned with the semantic category of degree, indicating an
increase or decrease of the intensity with which a predication is expressed.
Amplifiers:
They fully appreciate the problem.
Downtoners:
They have practically forced him to resign.

Focusing subjuncts
Focusing subjuncts draw attention to a part of a sentence.
Restrictive:
I merely wanted to know his name. (“I didn’t want to know anything else”)

Additive:
Fred has also invited his mother-in-law. (ie in addition to others)

3.3 Disjuncts
A disjunct indicates the speaker’s viewpoint on what he is saying.

3.3.1. Style disjuncts

Style disjuncts convey the speaker’s comment on the style and form of what is being
said (eg honestly, frankly, briefly, technically)
Briefly, there is nothing I can do to help.
Frankly, I am tired.
Technically, that is a non-finite embedded clause.

3.3.2. Content disjuncts

Content disjuncts make an observation on the actual content of an utterance and on its
truth conditions. They can occur in initial, medial or final position.
The play was undoubtedly/apparently/perhaps written by Francis Beaumont.
Remarkably, Mrs Jensen consulted her lawyer.
Mark passed his driving test, amazingly.

3.4 Conjuncts
Conjuncts are more like disjuncts than adjuncts in having a relatively detached and
“superordinate” role as compared with other clause elements. But they are unlike
disjuncts in not typically filling the semantic roles characteristic of adjuncts.
Conjuncts serve to conjoin two utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by
expressing the semantic relationship obtaining between them.

3.4.1. The semantics of conjuncts

Conjuncts may be grouped into four types: additive, adversative, resultative and
summative. (See Mackenzie & Martínez Caro 2012: 217-219)