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Chapter 3 - Concrete PDF
Chapter 3 - Concrete PDF
Chapter 3
CONCRETE
3.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete
3.2 Water Cement Ratio and Workability
3.3 Strength and Grade of Concrete
3.4 Concrete Preparation; Mixing, Placing, Delivery, Compaction,
Curing
3.5 Standard Testing for Fresh and Harden Concrete
3.6 Properties of Harden Concrete; Durability and Permeability
3.7 Concrete Mixture and Design
3.8 Types of Concrete
3.9 Admixture for Concrete
Concrete a composite man made material, is the most widely used material
in the construction industry. It consist of a rotationally chosen mixture of
binding material such as lime or cement, well graded fine and coarse
aggregate, water and admixture. In a concrete mix, cement and water form a
paste or matrix which fills the voids of the fine aggregate and binds them
(fine and coarse) together. The mixture than placed in forms and allowed to
cure and becomes hard like stone. The hardening of concrete is caused by
chemical reaction between water and cement and it continues for a long
time, and consequently the concrete grows stronger with age.
Water
Coarse
Aggregate
Fine Aggregate
Cemen
t
The strength, durability and other characteristic of concrete depend upon the
properties of its ingredients, the proportion of the mix, the method of
compaction and other controls during placing and curing. Basically, concrete
can be classified into two stages namely;
i) Fresh concrete
ii) Hardened concrete
c) Workability of the fresh concrete that is the ease with which concrete
is placed and consolidated.
Concrete containing water enough for hydration only, would be very dry and
difficult to place and compact. Therefore, additional water must be added to
make the mix workable enough to be easily place inside the forms and work
around the reinforcement. However, this additional water should be kept to a
minimum. The use of too much of water will weaken the strength of the
concrete.
For proper workability the w/c ratio varies from 0.4-0.6. However, maximum
strength is derived at w/c = 0.4. When it is decreased to less than 0.4 there is
improper consistency and workability of cement and honey combed
structure. However, concrete compacted by vibrator displays higher strength
even up to w/c = 0.3.
3.2.2 Workability
For practical purposes, workability implies the ease with which a concrete
mix can be handled from the mixer to its finally compacted shape without
segregation during placement and compaction.
1) Consistency
A state of fluidity of concrete mix, including
the wettest and densest type and this
depends on the water content in the mix.
2) Mobility
The ease with which concrete can flow into
the moulds and around steel
(reinforcement) thus completely filling the
moulds (formworks).
3) Compactibility
The ease with which the concrete mixes
can be completely compacted and the air
voids removed.
4) Stability
The ability of the concrete to maintain its
uniformity i.e to remain a stable coherent
homogenous mass during handling and
vibration without constituents segregating.
Cubes, cylinders and prisms are the three types of compression test
specimens used to determine the compressive strength. The cubes
are usually of 100 mm or 150 mm side, the cylinders are 150 mm
diameter by 300 mm height, and the prisms are 100 mm x l00 mm x
500 mm in size.
Concrete of grade 7 and 10 is suitable for lean concrete bases and for
mass concrete and these need not be designed. The concrete of grade
lower than grade 15 is not suitable for reinforced concrete works and
7 7.0
Mass concrete
10 10.0
40 40.0
50 50.0 Prestressed Pre-tensioned concrete
60 60.0
3.4.2 Batching
The design of concrete mixture involves the determination of the most
economical and practical combination of ingredients to make the concrete
workable in its plastic state and to make it develop the required qualities
when hardened.
1) Weight batching
For most large and important jobs the batching of materials is usually
done by weighing. Batching by weight eliminates error due to
2) Volume Batching
For most small job, volume batching is adopted by the amount of each
solid ingredient is measured by loose volume using measuring boxes,
gauge box, hopper or wheel barrows. In batching by volume,
allowance has to be made for the moisture present in sand which
results in its bulking. It also advisable to set the volumes in term of
whole bags of cement.
a) Machine mixing
Machine mixing can either be in rotation or stirring operation. The
rotation operation is used in tilting drum mixer, non-tilting drum mixer,
and dual drum mixer and continues mixer, while the stirring operation
is used in pan-type mixer see Figure 3.5.
(a) (b)
b) Hand mixing
There may be occasions when the concrete has to be mixed by hand,
and because of this case uniformity is more difficult to achieve,
therefore particular care and effort are necessary.
3.4.4 Transporting
The various methods used to move the concrete from the mixer or truck to
the forms depend largely upon the job conditions.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.7: (a) Wheel barrow; (b) Bucket
Others factors that need to be looked into when selecting the transporting
and handling equipment are the segregation of aggregates, loss of entrained
air, loss of cement paste, and change in slump.
3.4.5 Placing
The methods used in placing concrete in its final position have an important
effect on its homogeneity, density and behavior in service. To secure good
concrete it is necessary to make certain preparations before placing.
The formworks must be examined for correct alignment and adequate rigidity
to withstand the weight of concrete, impact loads during construction without
undue deformation.
The concrete should be placed in its final position rapidly so that it is not too
stiff to work. Water should not be added after the concrete has left the mixer.
When placing the concrete, care should be taken to drop the concrete
vertically and not too great a height.
3.4.6 Compaction
The objective of compaction is to eliminate air holes and to achieve
maximum density of concrete.
a) Hand Compaction
Hand compaction methods consist of rodding, tamping and spading
with suitable tools. Concrete mixes that normally use for hand
compaction are of fairly workable mix if the sections are at narrow and
the reinforcement closely packed.
b) Machine compaction
Compaction by using vibrators makes possible the placement of stiff,
harsh concrete mixes that cannot be placed and consolidated readily
by hand. Vibration makes it possible to use less workable mixes,
resulting in increased strength and lower drying shrinkage for given
mix proportions. Vibrating machines are usually operated by petrol
engines, compressed air or electricity. The vibrating machines that are
suitable for site use are of 3 main types, namely:
o Internal vibrator-pocker
o External vibrator-clamp to formwork
o Vibrating tables
3.4.7 Curing
In order to obtain good concrete the placing of an appropriate mix must be
followed by curing in a suitable environment during the early stages of
hardening.
In the case of site concrete, active curing stops nearly always long before the
maximum possible hydration has taken place. Normal curing keeps concrete
saturated or as nearly saturated as possible until water-filled space has been
occupied by the product of hydration. Inadequate curing through loss of
water by evaporation will fail to gain strength.
The necessity for curing arises from the fact that hydration of cement can
take place only in water-filled capillaries. This is why a loss of water by
evaporation from the capillaries must be prevented. Furthermore, water lost
1) Water Curing
Curing by flooding, ponding, or mist spraying is widely used. It is the
most effective of all known curing methods for the prevention of mix
water evaporation. This method is not always practical, however,
because of job conditions. Continuous sprinkling with water is also
an excellent method of curing. If the sprinkling is done at intervals,
the concrete must not be allowed to dry between applications of
water. A constant supply of water prevents the .possibility of crazing
or cracking due to alternate wetting and drying.
4) Chemical Membranes
Chemicals can be sprayed on the surface to cure concrete. Liquid
membrane-forming curing compounds retard or prevent the
evaporation of moisture from the concrete. The chemical application
should be made as soon as the concrete is finished. If there is any
delay in the application, the concrete must be kept moist until the
membrane is applied. The membrane curing compound must not be
applied when there is free water on the surface or after the concrete
is dry.
5) Steam Curing
In steam curing, the heating of the concrete products is caused by
steam either at low pressure or high pressure. The method ensures
even heating of products all over, even if the space between the
stacked precast concrete products is very small.
a) Slump Test
This method of test specifies the procedure to be adopted, either in the
laboratory or during the progress of work in the field, for determining the
consistency of concrete where the nominal maximum size of the aggregate
does not exceed 38 mm.
The internal dimensions of the mould for the test specimen shown in Figure
4.13 are bottom diameter = 200 mm, top diameter = 100 mm, and height =
300 mm.
The mould is filled in with fresh concrete in four layers, each approximately
one-quarter of the height and tamped with twenty-five strokes of the rounded
end of the tamping rod. The strokes are distributed in a uniform manner over
the cross -section and for the second and subsequent layers should
penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom layer is tamped throughout its
depth. After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is struck off level
with a trowel or the tamping rod, so that the mould is exactly filled.
Plan view
Side view
Figure 3.13: Mould for Slump test
The mould is removed immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a
vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is
measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of
the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being tested (Fig.
Certain mixes have a tendency to stick in one or both of the hoppers. If this
occurs, the concrete may be helped through by pushing the rod gently into
the concrete from the top. During this process, the cylinder should be
covered by the trowels. Immediately after the concrete has come to rest, the
cylinder is uncovered, the trap-door of the lower hopper is opened, and the
concrete is aIIowed to fall into the cylinder. The excess of concrete remaining
above the level of the top of the cylinder is then cut off.
The weight of the concrete in the cylinder is then determined to the nearest l0
g as the weight of partiaIIy compacted concrete. The cylinder is refilled with
concrete from the same sample in layers of approximately 50 mm, the layers
being heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full compaction.
The top surface of the fully compacted concrete is carefully struck off level
with the top of the cylinder. The compacting factor is defined as the ratio of
the weight of partially compacted concrete to the weight of fully compacted
concrete. It is normally stated to the nearest second decimal place.
The testing of hardened concrete can be classified into two types which are
destructive test and non-destructive test.
a) Destructive test
Carefully obtained samples of the concrete mix are placed and compacted in
accurately formed steel moulds, with machine inner surface. Bonding with the
steel mould is prevented by coating with release agent. The surface of each
cube is covered with impermeable sheet or the entire mould sealed. After 24
hours the cube is removed and cured under water at about 20 oC, until tested
at age of 7th, 14th and 28th days.
At the testing day, the cube with size of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm or
100mm x 100mm x 100mm, then place centrally between the platens of a
compression testing machine, trowelled face sideways, and the load is
applied such that the stress increase at a given constant rate until failure.
The maximum load is recorded and the values were divided with the cross
sectional area of the cube to obtained the compressive strength of the cube.
The successful operation of the test requires careful alignment of the cylinder
(or use of a jig) and packing strips should be used once only to ensure
uniform bedding, especially in the case of weak concretes, for which plywood
is more suitable material. Except near the packing pieces, a tensile stress is
induced by concrete on the vertical plane and the tensile strength ft at failure
is given by:
2W
ft = Equation 3.1
πDL
Where;
W = Load at failure
D = Diameter of cylinder
L = Length of cylinder
Note that, since the failure area is DL, the expression is the same as
load 2
ft = × Equation 3.2
failure _ area π
Figure 3.19: The cylinder splitting test for measurement of the tensile
strength of concrete
b) Non-destructive tests
These tests are useful to: (1) quality control; (2) determination of the time for
form removal; and (3) help assess the soundness of existing concrete
structures.
• Surface Hardness Methods - One of the oldest nondestructive tests,
developed in Germany in the 1930's. Basically, the surface is
impacted with a mass and the size of the resulting indention is
measured. The accuracy of these types of tests is only 20 to 30%.
• Rebound Hardness - The most common nondestructive test is the
rebound test. The test measures the rebound of a hardened steel
hammer impacted on the concrete by a spring. This method has the
same limitations as the surface hardness tests. The results are
affected by: (1) surface finish; (2) moisture content; (3) temperature;
(4) rigidity of the member being tested; (5) carbonation of the surface;
and (6) direction of impact (upward, downward, horizontal). Most
useful in checking the uniformity of concrete.
• Penetration Resistance - Resistance of concrete to penetration by a
steel probe driven by a given amount of energy is measured. This test
is not affected by surface hardness or carbonation as the above tests,
however, the mix proportions and material properties are still
important.
3.6.3 Permeability
Concrete has a tendency to be porous due to the presence of voids formed
during or after placing. To produce concrete of low permeability, full
compaction and proper curing is essential. For a given aggregate, the
permeability of concrete can be reduced by reducing the water content or by
increasing the cement content. Low permeability of concrete is important in
increasing resistant to frost action and chemical attack and in protecting
embedded steel against corrosion.
3.6.4 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a contraction deformation suffered by concrete even under no
load. The shrinkage of concrete is dependent on the amount of drying that
can take place. It is therefore influenced by the humidity and temperature of
the surrounding air, the rate of air flow over the surface and the proportion of
the surface area to volume of concrete.
The two types of shrinkage strains are:-
Plastic shrinkage.
Drying shrinkage.
Drying shrinkage is shrinkage which takes place after the concrete has set
and hardened. It takes place in the first few months. Drying shrinkage is
cause due to withdrawal of water from concrete stored in unsaturated air
voids. A part of this shrinkage can be recovered on immersion of concrete in
water.
For design the concrete mix grade 30 with assumption of 5% defectives and
8 N/mm2 standard deviation. The target mean strength is calculated as
follows.
Given the type of cement and aggregate, use Table 3.4 to obtain the
compressive strength at the specified ages that correspond to a free water
cement ratio of 0.5.
For example: ordinary Portland cement and crushed aggregate are used.
From the Table 3.4 of the compressive strength of 49 N/mm2 at 28 days (and
36 N/mm2 at 7 days and etc.)
In Figure 3.21 follow the starting line to locate the curve which passes
through the point. (49 N/mm2, w/c=0.5), in this particular case, it is the third
curve from the top of the figure. This curve shows that to obtain our target
mean strength of 43 N/mm2, we need a water/cement ratio of 0.54.
Sulfate-
resisting Crushed 27 (3900) 36 (5200) 49 (7100) 56 (8100)
Portland
(Type V)
2 1
= W f + Wc
3
Water Content (kg/m ) 3 3 (Equation 3.4)
Table 3.4: Approximate free water contents required for various level of
workability according to the 1988 DOE Method
Aggregate Water content, kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for :
Slump 0 – 10 10 – 30 30 – 60 60 – 80
Max. Size mm (in.) (0 – ½) (1/2 – 1) (1 – 2 ½ ) (2 ½ - 7)
Type
mm (in.) Vebe
> 12 6 – 12 3–6 0–3
time, s
Uncrushed 150 (255) 180 (305) 205 (345) 225 (380)
10 (3/8)
Crushed 180 (305) 205 (345) 230 (390) 250 (420)
Uncrushed 135 (230) 160 (270) 180 (305) 195 (330)
20 (3/4)
Crushed 170 (285) 190 (320) 210 (355) 225 (380)
Uncrushed 115 (195) 140 (235) 160 (270) 175 (295)
40 (11/2)
Crushed 155 (260) 175 (295) 190 (320) 205 (345)
(Equation 3.6)
Where,
γc = 3150 kg/m3 is density of cement particles
γw = 1000 kg/m3 is the density of water
Therefore;
Total aggregate content (kg/m3) = γa x Volume occupied by aggregate
(Equation 3.7)
Where,
γa, is the density of the aggregate particles. The DOE recommends that if no
information is available γa should be taken as 2600 kg/m3 for uncrushed
aggregates and 2700 kg/m3 for crushed aggregate.
area per unit weight, the lower will be the proportion expressed as a
For a given slump and w/c ratio, the proportion of fine aggregate can be
determined from Figure 3.21 in which the grading zones are those of Table
3.5.
1) Choice of Slump
The choice of slump is actually a choice of mix workability. Workability can
be described as a combination of several different, but related, PCC
properties related to its rheology:
• Ease of mixing
• Ease of placing
• Ease of compaction
• Ease of finishing
Generally, mixes of the stiffest consistency that can still be placed adequately
should be used (ACI, 2000). Typically slump is specified, but Table 3.6
Table 3.6: Slump ranges for specific applications (after ACI, 2000)
Slump
Type of Construction
(mm) (inches)
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 25 - 75 1-3
Plain footings, caissons and substructure
25 - 75 1-3
walls
Beams and reinforced walls 25 - 100 1-4
Building columns 25 - 100 1-4
Pavements and slabs 25 - 75 1-3
Mass concrete 25 - 50 1-2
4) Water-Cement Ratio
The water-cement ratio is a convenient measurement whose value is well
correlated with PCC strength and durability. In general, lower water-cement
ratios produce stronger, more durable PCC. If natural pozzolans are used in
the mix (such as fly ash) then the ratio becomes a water-cementitious
material ratio (cementitious material = portland cement + pozzolonic
material). The ACI method bases the water-cement ratio selection on
desired compressive strength and then calculates the required cement
content based on the selected water-cement ratio. Table 3.9 is a general
estimate of 28-day compressive strength vs. water-cement ratio (or water-
cementitious ratio). Values in this table tend to be conservative (ACI, 2000).
Most state DOTs tend to set a maximum water-cement ratio between 0.40 -
0.50
5) Cement Content
Cement content is determined by comparing the following two items:
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size
9.5 mm 12.5 mm 19 mm 25 mm 37.5 mm 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm
Slump
(0.375 in.) (0.5 in.) (0.75 in.) (1 in.) (1.5 in.) (2 in.) (3 in.) (4 in.)
Non-Air-Entrained PCC
25 – 50 (1 - 2) 207 (350) 199 (335) 190 (315) 179 (300) 166 (275) 154 (260) 130 (220) 113 (190)
75 – 100 (3 - 4) 228 (385) 216 (365) 205 (340) 193 (325) 181 (300) 169 (285) 145 (245) 124 (210)
150 – 175 (6 - 7) 243 (410) 228 (385) 216 (360) 202 (340) 190 (315) 178 (300) 160 (270) -
Air-Entrained PCC
25 – 50 (1 - 2) 181 (305) 175 (295) 168 (280) 160 (270) 148 (250) 142 (240) 122 (205) 107 (180)
75 – 100 (3 - 4) 202 (340) 193 (325) 184 (305) 175 (295) 165 (275) 157 (265) 133 (225) 119 (200)
150 – 175 (6 - 7) 216 (365) 205 (345) 197 (325) 184 (310) 174 (290) 166 (280) 154 (260) -
Recommended Air Content (percent)
Mild Exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate Exposure 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
Severe Exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0
Table 3.10: Volume of Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of PCC for
Different Fine aggregate Fineness Modulus for Pavement PCC.
Fine Aggregate Fineness Modulus
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
Notes:
1. These values can be increased by up to about 10 percent for
pavement applications.
2. Coarse aggregate volumes are based on oven-dry-rodded weights
obtained in accordance with ASTM C 29.
reinforcement resisting the tension and shear. It is the most versatile building
material available and is extensively used in the construction industry ranging
from small structural elements such as beams and columns to massive
structures like dams and bridges.
The loss of prestress at the initial stages is very high and for it high strength
steel is required. Prestressing is achieved by either pretensioning or post-
tensioning. In the former the wires or cables are anchored, tensioned and
concrete is cast in the moulds. After the concrete has gained strength the
wires are released. This sets up compression in concrete which counteracts
tension in concrete because of bending in the member. In the post-tensioning
the prestressing force is applied to the steel bars or cables, after the concrete
has hardened sufficiently. After applying the full prestress the cable
The pull out resistance of fibers depends upon the bond between the fibers
and matrix, the number of fibers crossing the crack, and the aspect ratio.
Air entrainers
Water reducers
Retarders
Hydration controller admixtures
Accelerators
Supplementary cementitious admixtures
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) identifies four major reasons for
using admixtures:
lower water contents. Water reducers are produced with different levels of
effectiveness: conventional, mid-range, and high-range. The high-range
water reducer is typically called superplasticizer.
Water reducing admixtures can be used indirectly to gain strength. Since the
water-reducing admixture increases workability, we can take advantage of
this phenomenon to decrease the mixing water, which in turn reduces the
water-cementitious materials ratio and increases strength.
When superplasticizers are used, the fresh concrete stays workable for a
short time, 30 min to 60 min, and is followed by rapid loss in workability.
Superplasticizers are usually added at the plant to ensure consistency of the
concrete. In critical situations, they can be added at the jobsite, but the con-
crete should be thoroughly mixed following the addition of the admixture. The
setting time varies with the type of agents, the amount used, and the in-
teractions with other admixtures used in the concrete.
3.9.3 Retarders
Some construction conditions require that the time between mixing and
placing or finishing the concrete be increased. In such cases, retarders can
Retarders can reduce the strength of concrete at early ages (e.g., one to
three days). In addition, some retarders entrain air and improve workability.
Other retarders increase the time required for the initial set but reduce the
time between the initial and final set. The properties of retarders vary with the
materials used in the mix and with job conditions. Thus, the use and effect of
retarders must be evaluated experimentally during the mix design process.
3.9.5 Accelerators
Accelerators are used to develop early strength of concrete at a faster rate
than that developed in normal concrete. The ultimate strength, however, of
high early strength concrete is about the same as that of normal concrete.
Accelerators are used to
The first three reasons are particularly applicable to concrete work placed
during cold temperatures. The increased strength gained helps to protect the
concrete from freezing and the rapid rate of hydration generates heat that
can reduce the risk of freezing.
set time of 3 hours for a typical concrete can be reduced to 1.5 hours by
adding an amount of calcium chloride equal to 1% of the cement weight; 2%
reduces the initial set time to 1 hour. Typical final set times are 6 hours, 3
hours, and 2 hours for 0%, 1%, and 2% calcium chloride. Concrete with
CaCI2, develops higher early strength compared with plain concrete cured at
the same temperature.
The PCA recommends against using calcium chloride under the following
conditions:
concrete is prestressed
concrete contains embedded aluminum such as conduits, especially if
the aluminum is in contact with steel
concrete is subjected to alkali-aggregate reaction
concrete is in contact with water or soils containing sulfates
concrete is placed during hot weather
mass applications of concrete
a. Fly Ash
Fly ash is the most commonly used pozzolan in civil engineering
structures. Fly ash is a by-product of the coal industry. Combusting
pulverized coal in an electric power plant burns off the carbon and
most volatile materials. However, depending on the source and type of
coal, a significant amount of impurities passes through the combustion
chamber.
chamber. The fly ash cools into spheres, which may be solid, hollow
(cenospheres), or hollow and filled with other spheres (plerospheres).
Particle diameters range from 1 µm to more than 0.1 mm, with an
average of 0.015 mm to 0.020 mm, and are 70% to 90% smaller than
0.045 mm. Fly ash is primarily a silica glass composed of silica (SiO2),
alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe203), and lime (Ca0).
The spherical shape of fly ash increases the workability of the fresh
concrete. In addition, fly ash extends the hydration process, allowing a
greater strength development and reduced porosity. Studies have
shown that concrete containing more than 20% fly ash by weight of
cement has a much smaller pore size distribution than portland
cement concrete without fly ash. The lower heat of hydration reduces
the early strength of the concrete. The extended reaction permits a
continuous gaining of strength beyond what can be accomplished with
plain portland cement.
c. Silica Fume
Silica fume is a byproduct of the production of silicon metal or
ferrosilicon alloys. One of the most beneficial uses for silica fume is as
a mineral admixture in concrete. Because of its chemical and physical
properties, it is a very reactive pozzolan. Concrete containing silica
fume can have very high strength and can be very durable. Silica fume
is available from suppliers of concrete admixtures and, when
specified, is simply added during concrete production either in wet or
dry forms. Placing, finishing, and curing silica fume concrete require
special attention on the part of the concrete contractor.
Silicon metal and alloys are produced in electric furnaces. The raw
materials are quartz, coal, and woodchips. The smoke that results
from furnace operation is collected and sold as silica fume.
d. Natural Pozzolans
A pozzolan is a siliceous and aluminous material which, in itself,
possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form
and in the presence of moisture, react chemically with calcium hy-
droxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties (ASTM C595). Naturally occurring pozzolans,
such as fine volcanic ash, combined with burned lime, were used
about 2000 years ago for building construction and pozzolan
continues to be used today. Calcium hydroxide is one of the products
generated by the hydration of C3S and C2S. In fact, up to 15% of the
weight of Portland cement is hydrated lime. Adding a pozzolan to
Tutorial 3
Summary of Chapter 3
From this chapter, we can conclude that, concrete is conglomerate, stone like
material composed essentially of three materials which are cement,
aggregate and water. Sometimes a fourth material namely an admixture is
added for variety of specific purposes, such as acceleration or retardation of
setting or hardening. The strength and quality of concrete depend not only on
the quality and quantity of the materials, but on the procedures used in
combining these materials and the skill involved in the placing and curing of
concrete.