ELG4125: Lecture 2

Power Transformers

The Ideal Transformer

The Real Transformer
Equivalent Circuits for Practical Transformers
The Per-Unit System
Three-Phase Transformers
Autotransformers
 Transformers in Power Systems
• Typically in power systems, voltages get transformed
approximately five times between generation and delivery to
the users.
• Generation in power systems, primarily by synchronous
generators, takes place at around 20-kV level.
• Transmission voltages of 230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV is
common.
• At the load, these voltages are stepped down to 120/240 V
single-phase in residential usage.
• Another advantage of transformers in many applications is to
provide electrical insulation for safety purposes.
 Real Transformers

Transformer Types
Power Transformers
Current Transformers
Voltage Transformers Transformer Connections
Series Transformers Each leg is a single phase transformer
Transformer Purchasing Issues Y-Y connections (no phase shift)
Efficiency D-D connections (no phase shift)
Audible Noise Y-D connections (-30 degrees phase shift)
Installation Costs D-Y connections (+30 degrees phase shift)
Manufacturing Facilities
Performance Record
 Nameplate Information

• kVA is the apparent power.

• Voltage ratings for high and low side are no-load values. The
symbol between the values indicate how the voltages are
related:
• Long dash (—) From different windings.
• Slant (/) …from same winding:
• 240/120 is a 240 V winding with a center tap.
• Cross (X) Connect windings in series or parallel. Not used in
wye-connected winding:
• 240X120 two part winding connected in series for 240 or parallel
for 120.
• Wye (Y) A wye-connect winding.
 Basic Principles of Transformer Operation
• Transformers consist of two or more coupled windings where
almost all of the flux produced by one winding links the other
winding.
 Transformer Exciting Current
• Transformers use ferromagnetic materials that guide magnetic
flux due to their high permeability, require small ampere-
turns to produce the desired flux density.
• The magnetising current is that current which flows in the
primary winding when the primary voltage is applied with the
secondary unloaded. It is the necessary current that satisfies
the excitation condition as determined by the fundamental
transformer equation.
• In modern power transformer of large kVA ratings, the
magnetizing currents in their normal operating region are very
small, for example, well below 0.2% of the rated current at
the rated voltage.
 Voltage Transformation

d vS  eS  N S
d
vP  eP  N P dt
dt

• The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency. By

operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact
because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching
saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance.
However, core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency.
• Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce
core and winding weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some railway
electrification systems were much lower (16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal
utility frequencies (50/60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the
limitations of early electric traction systems.
• As such, the transformers used to step down the high over-head line voltages
(15 kV) were much heavier for the same power rating than those designed
only for the higher frequencies.
 2π
EP  f NP φmax  4.44 f NP φmax
2

VP
max 
4.44 f NP

• Where VP is the RMS value of the applied voltage with the

assumption that eP = VP. The second Equation shows that the flux is
determined by the applied voltage, the frequency of operation, and
number of turns in the winding.
Example
Transformer Equivalent Circuit
Viewed from the Primary Side
Modeling a Real Transformer
Equivalent Circuit with Parameters
Moved to the Primary Side
Transformer Phasor Diagram
 Transformer Tests

Test to Determine Transformer Parameters, we require to conduct

Open Circuit Test:

Energize Low voltage winding at rated voltage, leaving other winding open
Measure Current (Ioc) and Power (Poc) into energized winding.
Calculate parameters

Short Circuit Test:

Energize Low current (high voltage) winding at rated current with a solid short
circuit applied across the other winding
Measure Voltage and Power at terminals of energized winding
Calculate parameters
 Transformer Test

Open-Circuit Test Short-Circuit Test

PCS
S
IC  , and
VS
I CS  I  - I 
e
S 2 S
C
2

2
V PSC  VSC 
RCS  SS , and RT  XT    - RT2
IC 2
I SC  I SC 
VS
X mS 
I mS
Example 1
Example 2
 The Per unit system

• In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers,

impedances, and other electrical quantities are
expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation:

Actual value
Quantity per unit =
Base value of quantity
• It is customary to select two base quantities to define a
given per-unit system. The ones usually selected are
voltage and power.
 Vb  Vrated Sb  Srated

Then compute base values for currents and impedances

Sb Vb Vb 2
Ib  Zb  
Vb I b Sb
 Vactual I actual
V p.u .  I p.u. 
Vb Ib
S actual Z actual
S p.u.  Z p .u . 
Sb Zb
Z %  Z p.u. 100%
Example 1
 Example 2
An electrical load is rated 120 volts, 500 watts. Compute
the per-unit and percent impedance of the load. Give the
per unit equivalent circuit.

V2 V2
(120) 2
P R   28.8
R P 500

Power factor = 1.0

Z  28.80

23
 Select base quantities

Sb  500VA
Vb  120V
Compute base impedance

Vb2 (120) 2
Zb    28.8
Sb 500
The per-unit impedance is

Z 28.80
Z p.u.    10p.u.
Zb 28.8
24
 Percent impedance:

Z %  100%
Per-unit equivalent circuit:

VS  10 p.u. Z  10 p.u.

25
 Per-unit System for Single Phase Circuits
One-phase circuits

Sb  S1-  V I
V  Vline-to-neutral
where

I  I line-current
VbLV  VLV VbHV  VHV
Sb Sb
I bLV  I bHV 
VbLV VbHV
26
 VbLV (VbLV ) 2 VbHV (VbHV ) 2
Z bLV   Z bHV  
I bLV Sb I bHV Sb

S
S pu   V pu I pu
*

Sb
P
Ppu   V pu I pu cos 
Sb
Q
Q pu   V pu I pu sin 
Sb
27
 Transformation Between Bases

Sb1  S A Vb1  VA

Vb21 ZL
Z b1  Z pu1 
Sb1 Z b1
And second
Sb 2  S B Vb 2  VB

2
V ZL
Zb2  b2
Z pu2 
Sb 2 Zb2
28
 Transformation Between Bases
Z pu2 Z L Z b1 Z b1 Vb21 Sb 2
     2
Z pu1 Z b 2 Z L Z b 2 Sb1 Vb 2
2
 Vb1   Sb 2 
Z pu2  Z pu1     
 Vb 2   Sb1 
“1” – old
“2” - new
2
 Vb,old   Sb,new 
Z pu,new  Z pu,old   
 S


V
 b,new   b,old 
29
 Transformation Between Bases
Generally per-unit values given to another base can be
converted to new base by the equations:

Sbase1
( P, Q, S ) pu _ on _ base_ 2  ( P, Q, S ) pu _ on _ base_1
Sbase2
Vbase1
V pu _ on _ base_ 2  V pu _ on _ base_1
Vbase2
(Vbase1 ) 2 Sbase2
( R, X , Z ) pu _ on _ base_ 2  ( R, X , Z ) pu _ on _ base_1
(Vbase2 ) 2 Sbase1

When performing calculations in a power system, every

per-unit value must be converted to the same base.

30
 Per-unit System for Single Phase Transformer
Consider the equivalent circuit of transformer referred to
LV side and HV side shown below:

RS XS
RS  jX S 2
j 2
a a

VLV VHV VLV VHV

N1 N2 VLV N1
Define a  1
S VHV N 2
Referred to LV side Referred to HV side

31
 Per-unit System for Single Phase Transformer
Choose
Vb1  VLV ,rated
Sb  Srated
Compute
VHV 1
Vb 2  Vb1  Vb1
VLV a
Vb21 Vb22
Z b1  Zb2 
Sb Sb
Z b1 Vb21 Vb21
 2  a 2

Z b 2 Vb 2 ( 1 V ) 2
32 b1
a
 Per-unit System for Single Phase Transformer
Per-unit impedances are
RS  jX S
Z p.u.1 
Z b1
RS jX S RS jX S
 2  2
a 2
a a 2
a RS  jX S
Z p.u.2   
Zb2 Z b1 Z b1
a2

Z p.u.1  Z p.u.2
33
 Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is defined as
Vno-load - V full-load
VR  100%
V full-load

In per-unit system

V pu,no-load - V pu, full-load

VR  100%
V pu, full-load
Vfull-load: Desired load voltage at full load. It may be equal to, above, or
below rated voltage.
Vno-load: The no load voltage when the primary voltage is the desired
voltage in order the secondary voltage be at its desired value
at full load.

34
 Example
A single-phase transformer rated 200-kVA, 200/400-V, and
10% short circuit reactance. Compute the voltage
regulation when the transformer is fully loaded at unity
power factor and rated voltage 400-V.

Vb 2  400V
VP j 0.1 VS
Sb  200kVA
XS
Sload
Sload, pu  10 pu

X S , pu  j 0.1 pu

35
 Rated voltage

VS , pu  1.00 pu
*
 Sload, pu   1.00 *
I load, pu      1.00 pu
 V   1.00 
 S , pu 
VP , pu  VS , pu  I pu X S , pu
 1.00  1.00  j 0.1  1  j 0.1
 1.0015.7 o pu

36
 Secondary side

Vpu, full-load  VS , pu  1.00 pu

Vpu,no-load  VP, pu  1.0015.7o pu

Voltage regulation

V pu,no-load - V pu, full-load

VR  100%
V pu, full-load
1.001 - 1.0
 100%  0.1%
1.0
37
 Problem

j100
G

20 kV 22kV/220kV 220kV/20kV 50MVA

80MVA 50MVA 0.8 PF
14% 10% lagging

Select Vbase in generator circuit and Sb=100MVA, compute the

per unit equivalent circuit.

38
 Residential Distribution Transformers

Single phase transformers are commonly used in

residential distribution systems. Most distribution
systems are 4 wire, with a multi-grounded, common
neutral.

39
Three-Phase Transformers
 Per-unit System for Three Phase Circuits

Sb  S3-  3S1-  3V I

V  Vline-to-neutral  VL (line) / 3
I  I line-current  I L
Sb  3VL I L
VbLV  VL, LV VbHV  VL, HV
Sb  3VbLV I bLV  3VbHV I bHV
41
 Per-unit System for Three Phase Circuits
Sb Sb
I bLV  I bHV 
3VbLV 3VbHV
VLV VbLV 3VbLV (VbLV ) 2
Z bLV   
ILV 3 Sb Sb
(VbHV ) 2
Z bHV 
Sb
S3 3VL I L*
S pu    V pu I *pu
Sb 3Vb I b
42
 Per-unit System for Three Phase Transformer
Three 25-kVA, 34500/277-V transformers connected in D-
Y. Short-circuit test on high voltage side:

VLine,SC  2010V

I Line,SC  1.26 A

P3 ,SC  912W

Determine the per-unit equivalent circuit of the
transformer.

43
 Per-unit System for Three Phase Transformer
Using Y-connection equivalent circuit

RS  jX S
I SC  1.26
2010
VSC  Sb  25000VA
3
34500
277
3
2010
VSC   1160.47V
3
1160.47
Z SC   921.00
1.26

44
 Per-unit System for Three Phase Transformer
912 P 304
P   304W RS  2
 2
 191.48
3 I SC 1.26

XS  Z SC - RS2  9212 - 191.482  900.86

2

Z SC  191.48  j900.86
34500
Sb  25000VA Vb, HV   19918.58V
3
19918.582
Z b,HV   15869.99
25000
191.48  j900.86
Z SC, pu,Y   0.012  j 0.0568 pu
15869.99
45
 Per-unit System for Three Phase Transformer
Using D-connection equivalent circuit
1.26
I SC 
3 Z SC,D

VSC  2010 Sb  25000VA

34500 277

VSC  2010V 1.26

I SC   0.727 A
3
2010
Z SC,D   2764.79
0.727

46
 Per-unit System for Three Phase Transformer
912 P 304
P   304W RS ,D  2
 2
 575.18
3 I SC 0.727
2
X S ,D  Z SC,D - RS2,D  2764.792 - 575.182  2704.30

Z SC  191.48  j900.86

Sb  25000VA Vb, HV  34500V

345002
Z b,HV   47610
25000
575.18  j1704.30
Z SC, pu,D   0.012  j 0.0568 pu
47610
47
 Transformer Efficiency

Output power Pout Pout

  
Input power Pin Pout  Ploss

Pout  VS IS cos θ

VS IS cos θ
  100  
VS IS cos θ  PCu  PC
 Load Tap Changing Transformers
• LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be varied to regulate
bus voltages.

• The typical range of variation is 10% from the nominal values,

usually in 33 discrete steps (0.0625% per step).

• Because tap changing is a mechanical process, LTC transformers

usually have a 30 second dead-band to avoid repeated changes
to minimize wear and tear.

• Unbalanced tap positions can cause “circulating VARs;” that is,

reactive power flowing from one winding to the next in a three
phase transformer.

49
 Phase Shifting Transformers

• Phase shifting transformers are used to control the phase

angle across the transformer.

• Since power flow through the transformer depends upon

phase angle, this allows the transformer to regulate the
power flow through the transformer.

• Phase shifters can be used to prevent inadvertent "loop flow"

and to prevent line overloads.

50
 Phase Shifting Transformer Picture
Costs about $7 million,
weighs about 1.2
million pounds

230 kV 800 MVA Phase Shifting

Transformer During factory testing
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power 51
Power Transformers from China
 Autotransformers
• Autotransformers are transformers in
which the primary and secondary
windings are coupled magnetically
and electrically.
• This results in lower cost, and smaller
size and weight.
• The key disadvantage is loss of
electrical isolation between the
voltage levels. This can be an
important safety consideration when
a is large. For example in stepping
down 7160/240 V we do not ever
want 7160 on the low side!

54