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Chapt8 - Surface Runoff PDF
Chapt8 - Surface Runoff PDF
Chapter 8
Runoff
The water which flow over the land surfaces. The overland and groundwater
contributes to stream flow (Fig. 1).
Catchment area
Entire area of a river basin whose surface runoff drains into the river (watershed)
Drainage divide
A boundary line along a topographical ridge, separating two adjacent catchment
areas.
Mainstream length
Distance from gauging station or catchment outfall.
Slope
Provides the gradient for water flow in the catchment area. On steep slopes
there is more:
• surface runoff
• concentration time short
• flood peaks high
• infiltration low
Concentration point
Single point or location at which all surface drainage from a catchment area
comes together.
Concentration time
Time required for the rain falling at the most distant point in the catchment are to
reach the concentration point.
Stream density
Number of streams per unit area
NS
DS =
Area
Drainage density
Total length of all stream channels per unit area of basin
LS
Dd =
Area
A high value indicates a well developed network, with torrential runoff which may
cause intensive floods.
1.5(CI )NC
Slope =
∑L
Where:
CI =contour interval in the basin
NC =number of contours crossed by all subdividing lines (vertical and
horizontal)
∑ L =total length of subdividing lines (vertical and horizontal)
Equation becomes:
2
Rating curve
A graph that shows the connection between the water level elevation (stage) of
river channel at a certain cross-section and the corresponding discharge at that
section (Fig. 2).
Stage (elevation), m
Discharge (Q), m3
Area-velocity methods
• surface floats e.g. wooden discs, organs, balloons
• canisters submerged mass(cylindrical) suspended by a cord
from the surface (Fig. 3).
• rod floats
• current meters
The mean velocity measured from the first three methods will be multiplied by a
correction factor (c). The accuracy of the above methods range from ± 1 0% to
20% and the correction factor, c=0.84-0.9 (Herschy, 1978).
Current meters
The device has a rotating element and the speed of revolution has a definite
relation with the velocity of flow. It is measured through a cable automatically or
through a rating curve. The method is suitable for medium to large rivers. On
small streams they may be held by someone standing in the flow, but on wider or
deep streams they may be suspended from boats, bridges or overhead cable-
ways.
Procedure
• cross-section of stream at gauge station is divided into equal strips of
equal with
• the current meter is lowered to a depth of:
(a) 0.6d below water surface for shallow depths (one point method)
(b) 0.2d and 0.8d below water surface for deep waters (two-point
method). The average velocity is obtained from the two measured
points.
Rod
Canister
Float
.
Fig. 3
1
( d)
b 1 1 6
( d) ( d)
2 8
Fig. 4
∆Q = (b × d )
[V0.2 D + V0.8 D ] or ∆Q = b × d × V0.6 d
2
Q = ∑ ∆Q
Dilution method
It requires the edition of a tracer of known concentration to the flow and taking
samples to determine the diluted concentration after the tracer has been mixed
with the flow. They are useful in turbulent rivers and rock-strewn shallow rivers,
and have been used within pipelines. Generally the method is used for spot
checks rather than for regular flow measurement because of costs of analysis.
The method can provide very accurate results given a suitable reach. Its
advantage is that it is an absolute method because of the discharge computed
from volume and time only. The main disadvantage is the difficulty in obtaining
complete mixing of the tracer without loss of tracer and the environmental
concerns with some tracers. Also well trained personnel are required. There are
mainly two methods:
• gulp
• constant-rate
Gulp
A known volume of tracer is added and samples taken over a long period of time
to determine how the tracer concentration varies with time
t2
C1V = Q ∫ (C 2 − C 0 )dt
t1
Q =stream discharge
C0 =background concentration of tracer chemical, mg/l
C1 =tracer concentration at injection, mg/l
C2 =downstream concentration, mg/l
V =volume injected, litres
t1; t2 =time when tracer pass first and last sampling points respectively
Constant rate
A tracer is added steadily over a long period of time so that the concentration if
tracer sampled from the downstream achieve constant values. The stream flow
discharge is obtained from a mass balance:
QC O + qC1 = (Q + q )C 2
q; C1
Q; C0 Q+q; C2
Permanent structures
These include flumes and weirs and are simple to use but are not suitable for
wide or deep rivers and may create an obstruction to river transport and traffic.
Sediments max accumulate upstream of the structures and hence need for
continuous correction of the rating curve.
Examples include
• Vee-notch
• Crump weirs
• Rectangular weir
• Triangular weir
• Cipoletti weir
ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF
Runoff measurements are always not available compared to the rainfall data. As
a result Engineers and Hydrologist have no option but to estimate or predict the
runoffs which are necessary for any design of a hydraulic structure. When there
is no runoff data, the following methods can be used to estimate runoff:
• Empirical formulae
• Rational method (outlined in the drainage topic)
• Unit hydrograph (outlined in the hydrograph analysis)
• Infiltration outlined (already outlined in infiltration and net rainfall)
• SCS method
Empirical formulae
A relationship can be developed between rainfall and runoff e.g. regression
analysis, which can produce a linear relationship:
R = mP + c
∑ (x )( )
n= N
n − x yn − y
m=
∑ (x )
n= N
2
n −x
1
c = y − mx
The good fit of best fit line is found from the correlation coefficient Cc is given as:
∑ (x )( )
n= N
n − x yn − y
cc =
∑ (x ) ( )
n=n n= N
− x × ∑ yn − y
2 2
n
1 1
10
y
Line of best fit
dy
m=
dx
Point error
c
Cc=1 Cc=0
C C = −1
y
y y
x x x
y = cx m
References
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