Chapter 2…

Statistical Analysis

1. Accuracy and Precision:

Accuracy: The closeness of the measured value to the true value.

Precision: The degree of agreement within a group of measurements or

instruments (describe the spread of output readings for the same input).

Repeatability: Describes the closeness of output readings when the

same input is applied repeatedly with the same (measured device,
conditions, location, observer, etc.)

Reproducibility: Describes the closeness of output readings when the

same input is applied repeatedly with different (measured device,
conditions, location, observer, etc.)

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 Example:

Assume 3 Robots (R1, R2, R3) are

programmed to move an object from
point A to point B (5 times).

High precision may not mean high

accuracy.

High accuracy at different tires

indicates high precision.

(see the figure)

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The Mean value, Deviation, and Standard Deviation

For n measurements, O1, O2, …, On, we have.

Arithmetic Mean:
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑂𝑖
𝑂ത = 𝐸 𝑂 =
𝑛

Deviation:
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑂𝑖 − 𝑂ത

Standard Deviation:
𝜎= 𝐸 𝑂 − 𝑂ത 2

σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑂𝑖 − 𝑂ത 2
=
𝑛 3
The measurements will be normally distributed around the mean average
ത
value 𝑂.

1 − 𝑂−𝑂ത 2
𝑃 𝑂 = 𝑒 2𝜎2
2𝜋𝜎 2

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Significant Figures

An indication of the precision of the measurement system is obtained

from the number of significant figures in which the result is expressed.

The more significant figures the greater the precision of the

measurements.

Example: An ohmmeter indicates that the value of a resistance is 68 ,

this indicates that the resistance is closer to 68 than 67 or 69 , i.e.,
(67.5 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 68.5), two significant figures.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ±0.5 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 68 ± 0.5 

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Significant Figures…
Example…
Similarly, ohmmeter indicates that the value of a resistance is 68.0 ,
this indicates that the resistance is closer to 68.0 than 68.1 or 67.9 , i.e.,
(67.95 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 68.05), three significant figures.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ±0.05 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 68.1 ± 0.05 

Sometimes, the result or the value of a variable is indicated as the mean

value ± the largest deviation from the mean, or ± the percentage of the
largest deviation from the mean, i. e.,

𝑥 = 𝑥ҧ ± 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑥ҧ ± × 100%
𝑥ҧ 6
 Example: A set of independent voltage measurements taken by four
observers, was recorded as 117.02 v, 117.11 v, 117.08 v, and 117.03 v.
Calculate:
1. The average voltage:

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𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝑎𝑣 = ෍ = 117.06 𝑣
4
𝑖=1

2. The range of error:

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ±𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= 117.11 − 117.06 = 0.05
Therefore,
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 117.06 ± 0.05 𝑣 or
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 117.06 ± 0.0427%

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 Important Note (Lemma 1)

Assume A has K significant figure,

and
B has M significant figure,
then,
𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 × 𝐵

Should have
𝑀𝑖𝑛(𝐾, 𝑀) Significant figure.

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 Example:
Aiming at clarifying the aforementioned lemma 1, consider the
following example, Let the equivalent resistance of two resistors in
series be:

𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢 = 18.7 + 3.624 = 22.324Ω

The final result should be written correctly as
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢 = 22.3Ω

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 Important Note (Lemma 2)

In summation or subtraction of two numbers of maximum deviation,

The result has the summation of their maximum deviations.

Example:
Aiming at clarifying the aforementioned lemma 2, consider the
following example, Let:

𝑁1 = 118 ± 5 = 118 ± 4.237%,

𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑁2 = 64 ± 10 = 64 ± 15.635%
Then
𝑁1 + 𝑁2 = 182 ± 15 = 182 ± 8.242%,
and
𝑁1 − 𝑁2 = 54 ± 15 = 54 ± 27.78%.

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 Types of Errors
1. Gross Error: No
Largely human errors: measurement
device has
• Misreading of the instruments
perfect
• Incorrect adjustment (wrong scale, not set to zero, etc.) accuracy.
• Computational mistakes
• Improper use of measurement device.

2. Systematic Error:
Instrumental Error:
• Inherent in measurement instrument because of mechanical structure (friction,
stretching of a spring, calibration errors, etc.).
• Check: compare it to other with the same characteristics or to one that is
known to be more accurate.
Environmental Errors:
• Due to conditions external to measuring device (temperature, humidity,
pressure, magnetic or electric fields, etc.).
• Check: air conditioning, magnetic shields, etc.).
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 Types of Errors
No
measurement
device has
perfect
accuracy.
3. Random Errors:
Errors due to unknown causes and occur even when all
systematic errors have been accounted for.
• Check: increase number of readings and use statistical
means (average, deviation, standard deviation, etc.) to
obtain the best approximations.

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 Example:
Let
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅1 2, if the tolerance of each resistance is 0.1%, what is the maximum error
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of 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ?

Solution:
𝑅1𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅2𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.001𝑅1 × 1.001𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 1.003 = 1.003𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅3𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.999𝑅3 𝑅3
Similarly,
𝑅1𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅2𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.999𝑅1 × 0.999𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.997 = 0.997𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅3𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.001𝑅3 𝑅3

1.003𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑝+ = × 100% = 0.3%
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
0.997𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑝− = × 100% = −0.3%
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Therefore,
𝐸𝑝 = ±0.3%
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 Example:
The current passing through a resistance of 100 ± 0.2Ω is 2.00 ± 0.01 𝐴.
Find:
1. The average power dissipated by R
2. The percentage error bands.

Solution:
𝑃 = 𝑖2ҧ 𝑅ത = 2.00 2
× 100 = 400 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.01 2 × 100.2 = 404.82 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.99 2

× 99.8 = 395.22 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

404.82 − 400
𝐸𝑝+ = × 100% = 1.2%
400
395.22 − 400
𝐸𝑝− = × 100% = −1.2%
400
Therefore,
𝐸𝑝 = ±1.2%
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Practice Example:
𝑋+𝑌
Find the percentage error band of 𝑊 = , where 𝑋 = 300 ± 5, 𝑌 = 200
𝑍
± 1.5%, and 𝑍 = 25 ± 0.125

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