SKAA 3613-Lecture (SPACE UTMKL)

Oct. 2017

HYDROLOGY / HIDROLOGI

Lecturer : Assoc. Prof. Dr Norhan Abd Rahman

Email: norhan0123@yahoo.co.uk
Tel: 012-7710825

.
Hydrology – Lecture 1

2.0 : PRECIPITATION
(Curahan)
/Rainfall ( Hujan)
 Topic/content- Hydrology
1.Introduction to Hydrology
2.Precipitation/ Rainfall
3.Hydrologic Losses
4.River flow Measurement
5.Hydrograph Analysis
6.Modelling in Hydrology
7.Flow Estimation
8.Flood Routing
9.Frequency Analysis
10.Reservoir
11.Groundwater
Urban storm-water guideline-Malaysia

1. MSMA guideline : www.water .gov.my

- JPS

2. HP 1 - JPS
HYDROLOGY-Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction To Hydrology

1.1The hydrologic Cycle

1.2 Hydrologic Water Balance
 Precipitation

Infiltration
Interception

Runoff

Evaporation

Discharge
Recharge
Rain

Snow
 PRECIPITATION/Rainfall

• Definition precipitation and type of rainfall

• Measurement of rainfall depth
• Filling in missing data
• Rainfall Intensity
• Rainfall Data Analysis-Point Analysis
• Mean Areal Precipitation (MAP)
• Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve (IDF)
 Introduction

•Precipitation is the primary input quantity to

the hydrologic cycle, whether in the term of
rain, snow, drizzle, or hail
•It’s the main input of water for the Hydrology
System and it is essential for the input –
output analysis.
The Precipitation Formation Cycle

Evaporation-
from sea, ground surface
Nucleation-
formed as aerosols
Transportation-
clouds formed from water vapour
Condensation-
water condenses into droplets
Precipitation-
through the atmosphere in the form
Of rain
Precipitation Formation Cycle

n n
• Precipitation much depends on the weathering factors
(meteorology) namely:
 Air Movement
 Temperature
 Atmospheric pressure
 Humidity
Major Precipitation Types
• Precipitation is often classified according to
conditions that generate vertical air motion.

Due to intense heating of air at the

Convective ground which leads to expansion
and vertical rise of the air
Associated with the movement of
large air mass systems from high
Cyclonic pressure to low pressure, as in the
case of warm or cold fronts.

Due to mechanical lifting of moist

Orographic Air masses over mountain ranges
As in the pacific northwest
Measurement Of Precipitation

•A variety of instruments and techniques have

been developed for measuring amount and
intensity of precipitation.
•Its measured on the basis of the water
vertical (mm).
• The measured precipitation data are subject to
errors due to

Water displacement by the dipstick.

Amount for wetting of the gauge collector.
Evaporation during precipitation and manual
reading
Height of the gauge above the ground
The effect of wind
2.4.1 Precipitation gauges
• Precipitation may be recording or non-recording.
There are many types of both classes:

1).Non-Recording Gauges
-measure on a certain period of time.
-Measured by the observer.
-Standard instruments, observation procedures

2).Recording gauges
-Automatically record the rate
-More expensive
Non Recording
Gauge
Recording Gauge
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
2.4.2 Errors in Measurement
• Two main errors:

Instrumental errors

Damage on the instruments

Losses through splashing
Wind
Unsuitable receiving location

Sampling Errors

Error in reading scale

Mistakes in recording data
2.4.3 Location Selection

• Location represent the actual area.

• Open area
• Free from wind turbulence
• Easy access to the measurement area
• Flat ground surface; avoid slope area
• Any changes the measurement area should be recorded
• Away from trees, building or any obstacle with the minimum
distance of 2 times the object.
 h
<30o <30o

>2h

A rain gage site: Max. shelter allowed

 Table 2.1 - Minimum Density of Precipitation Stations

(Reproduced from World Meteorological Organization (1965) Guide to Hydrometerological

Practices.)

Minimum density
Region range (km2 /
gauge)

Temperate, mediterranean x tropical

zones
600 - 900
Flat areas
100 – 250
Mountainous areas

Small mountainous islands (< 20

25
000 km2)

Arid & polar zones

1500 - 10 000
Minimum number of rain gauges for monthly
percentage of average rainfall estimate.
Reproduced from A. Bleasdale (1965) Proc
WMO/IASH Symp. On the Design of
Hydrological Networks IASH Pub No. 67, pp
46-54
Square
kilometres Number of rain
Square miles
(Approx.) gauges.

10 26 2
100 260 6
500 1300 12
1000 2600 15
2000 5200 20
3000 7600 24
2.4.4 Precipitation Networks

• The physical appearance of the catchments area

should be identified.
• The rainfall characteristics of various countries
determine the design of the rain gauge networks.
• The accuracy can be tested using a number of
statistical and hydrologic method.
2.4.5 Spatial Measurement of Rainfall By
Radar and Satellites

• Provides data in real time

• Ability to detect involved area, storm orientation
and movement.
• Useful in large and difficult accessed area.
• Can give instant precipitation mapping of area.
2.5 Rainfall Data Processing
• The data is rearranged before it is store in
database.
• The process are:

Data recorded in field manually

Or electronics

Central Office
(data processing and Quality Control)

Data Base
• For non recording gauges measurement can be
recorded in a special form.
• Observes are encouraged to measure and note on
the heavy rainfalls over short period.
• The data sheet are then sent to the relevant
collecting station.
2.6 Rainfall Data Quality Control

• The possible common errors in recording into form:

Mistakes in data reading
Recording error
Instruments being disturbed
2.7 Precipitation Analysis
• For any input-output relationship analysis, it
needs input data interpretation.
• Rainfall analysis from storm precipitation is
different between from time series.
• Storm analysis can be classified into :

Area Distribution
Point Analysis
Analysis
2.7.1 Infilling Of Missing Data

• There are few method for estimating missing data.

• Common Method:
• i) Arithmetic Mean Model
• Formula

Pi
Px  
n
Px = Rainfall from missing point
Pi = Rainfall from the index
N =number of index
• ii). Normal Ratio method
-At least 3 readings from the index station
-Formula :
 Nx   Pi  Where:
Px      Px = rainfall on missing points

 n   Ni 
N = annual normal average rainfall
n = number of index stations
 Quadrant method

• iii). Quadrant Method

- Needs at least 4 index stations reading
-Area surrounding the missing point station is divided into
quadrant
-Distance between missing point station and index stations
are decided:
-Formula
P = Rainfall
 Pi 
  Li 2  L = Distance
Px 
 L 
  Li 2 
 Inverse distance weighting
• Prediction at a point is more
influenced by nearby measurements
than that by distant measurements P1=1
• The prediction at an ungaged point is 0
inversely proportional to the distance
to the measurement points P2= d1=25
• Steps 20 d =15
– Compute distance (di) from ungaged
2
P3=
point to all measurement points. d =10
30
3

p
– Compute the precipitation at the
ungaged point using the following N  Pi 
formula   2
 
i 1  d i  10 20 30
ˆ
P  2 2

x1  x2    y1  y2 
2
N  ˆ
1  P 25 15 10  25.24 mm
d12 
2 2
  2
i 1  d i 
1

1

1
25 2 152 10 2
2.7.2 Point( Station Analysis)

• Point precipitation data are used collectively to:

Estimate a real variability of rain
Develop design storm characteristics
Derive intensity-duration-frequency curve
Among the variations in the hydrology eco-system
are blaze in catchments area, forest destruction,
earthquake etc.