Chapter Outline 211 History of CNC 21.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using cnc 21.3 CNC Milling Machines 21.31 Basic CNC Milling Machines 21.3.2 Machining Centers 2LACNC Turning Machines 24.41 Basic CNC Lathes 24.4.2 Gang-Tool Lathes 24.4.3 Turret Lathes 21.44 Swiss-Type Turning Centers 2LSCNC Safety 21.8 CNC Coordinate Systems 24.6.1 Cartesian Coordinate System 21.6.2 Polar Coordinate System 21.7 CNC Movement ‘ystems 21.7.1 Stepper Motors 24.1.2 Servomotors 24.1.3 Lead Screws and Lead Nuts Learning Objectives Alter studying this chapter, you will be able to: ‘Describe the development of CNC technology. ‘List advantages and disadvantages of using CNC technology + Describe the features of CNC milling machines. * Compare the characterstis of various types of CNC turning machines. * Identify safety guidelines for CNC machining processes. ‘+ Summarize the use of the Cartesian and polar coordinate systems in CNC technology + Contrast the two types of motors that are commonly used to drive CNC machines. Technical Terms automatic tool changer lead screw (ato) lockout/tagout procedures backlash hining center Cartesian coordinate ‘open-loop system system polar coordinate system closed-loop system eee conversational language stepper motor coordinate system Swiss-type turning center dry cycle turning center encoder vertical machining center hotizontal machining (VM) center (HMC)392 (CNC) machines have revolutionized machining. CNC machines can perform complex machining ‘operations faster than manual machines with greater accu- racy and ease. This chapter introduces CNC milling and turning machines, including their history, advantages, and disadvantages. This chapter also covers CNC saiety and the basics of CNC movement systems. 21.1 History of CNC Compater-controlled machining got its start during the 1950s as numerical control (NC). Programs to control machine tools were created and stored on punched paper tape, Figure 21-1, Programmers punched holes in the tape at specific locations to produce multiple combinations. Each combination represented a separate letter, number, character, of command, Paper tape readers read the rows of punched holes on the tape at a rate of up to 1,000 lines per second and transferred the information to the computer that controlled the motion of the machine tool ‘When these machines were first introduced, the cost of the machines and the skills needed to operate them out- ‘weighed the potential cost savings, so many companies were slow to develop the technology. However, by the end of the 1950s, the use of NC equipment was beginning to increase. ‘The development of the minicomputer in the 1960s dramatically increased the acceptance and use of NC equip- tment. This technology converted numerical control to com- puter numerical control (CNC). Computer control lowered the cost of the equipment and made it more cost-effective due to the faster processing capability of the minicomputer. Also during the 1960s, programming codes were devel- ‘oped to help standardize CNC programming languages. Until then, each machine manufacturer had implemented its ‘own language. These codes, which are still in use today, are described in Chapter 22, CNC Programming Basics. ‘As computer and machine drive technologies contin- ued to develop from the 1970s through the 1990s, equip- ‘ment became faster and more capable of producing complex shapes, making CNC machining a more cost-effective method, Figure 21-2. Also, the use of computer memory to store programs began to replace the use of punched paper tape. Today, the use of punched paper tape isall but obsolete. S ince their development, computer numerical control 21.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using CNC ‘The primary advantage of using CNC equipment is that eliminates much of the variation caused by human interac- ton during the manual machining process. Even the best ‘machinists cannot perfectly duplicate thei actions for every ‘Machining Funcementals 7656 321 ar6s0 321 Rs-240 B Aisha on Figure 21-1. Punched tape, A—Tape cede. Note that every level of RS:244 tape has an add number of punches for parity check RS-358 tape has an even number. Party check is a method of automatically checking ta reduce the passiaiity of tape errors caused by a malfunctioning tape punch. B—A rall of punched tape. part. A CNC machine is not perfect, but its movements are better controlled than those ofa human, which reduces vari- ation in the parts that are produced. Another general advan tageis the rate at which parts are produced. The faster parts can be machined, the less they cost per unit to manufacture. ‘Thisallows manufacturers o offer lower prices tocustomers, ‘making them more competitive in the global marketplace.‘chapter 21. Intoduction to CNC Machining ‘Trunnion table NC Sta, ne ep 988.2013. gh ese Figure 21-2. A helical impeller machined on a vertical machining center. The complex contours ofthis part can be machined thanks to the additional axes of rotation provided by the tilting trunnion table and rotary table under CNC control Rotary table ‘The biggest disadvantage of using CNC is the initial cost of| the machine. As costs continue to decrease, CNC technology isbecoming more affordable. However, some small companies still lack the resources to purchase the necessary equipment. 21.3 CNC Milling Machines A basic CNC milling machine is a traditional milling machine with builtin CNC capabilities. Machining centers are CNC milling machines equipped with an automatic tool changer (ATC), a device that automatically changes and stores the tools, Figure 21-3. The machining cycle pauses for the automated tool change process, but the automated tooling change takes much less time than a manual tooling change. Most machining centers are enclosed. ‘The advantages of CNC milling machines are that they inerease part output through faster operation compared to manual machining, and their reduced variation yields a higher quality product. Options such as additional rotating axes can be added to increase the versatility of the machine, but these options also significantly increase the cost. ‘The greatest disadvantage of CNC milling machines is their high cost. Various types of CNC milling machines are available, with prices ranging from moderately expensive to hundreds of thousands of dollars or more, 21.3.1 Basic CNC Milling Machines ‘The basic CNC milling machine, like its manual counter- part has three axes of movement and requires tooling to be changed manually. The machine shown in Figure 21-4 isan example of abasic CNC milling machine. Itcan be operated both manually and in full CNC mode. 993 Tool magazine Too! changer Figure 21-3. This automatic tool changer (ATC) holds the tools, ina tool magazine and uses a pivot insertion system to quickly ‘and automatically change tools on a horizontal machining center. Figure 21-4. A Bridgeport 3-axis CNC vertical milling machine. This basic CNC milling machine can be controlled both, manually and in full CNC mode, Traditional machinists can operate a basie CNC milling machine manually, or they can be trained to create programs using a method known as conversational language. In this394 method, the control is equipped with software that allows the operator to select operations from menus, The software converts the operator's input into standard programming code for the control, which then drives the equipment to ‘machine the parts. Conversational language is described in Chapter 22, CNC Programming Basics. Basic CNC milling machines are usually equipped with quick-change collets to allow the operator to change tools during the programmed cycle, Figure 21-5. A CNC program can be written with pauses to allow an operator to change tools manually. Quick-change collets are less rigid than nor ‘mal collets and can only be used for light- to medium-duty operations. ‘The biggest advantage of the basic CNC milling machine is its cost It s well suited to the toolroom environment and allows traditional machinists to operate it manually or in full CNC mode to create small batches of parts. However, the basic CNC milling machine is not suitable for high-volume production because it lacks the necessary speed, precision, and repeatability. aa Prt, Oso Can Manat xpath Figure 21-5. Inserting an end mill mounted in a quick-change Collet. Quick-change tool systems provide a fast method of changing tools on basic CNC milling machines Machining Fundamentals 21.3.2 Machining Centers The spindle of a machining center can be either horizon- tal or vertical. Horizontal machining centers (HMCS) have the same features as manual horizontal milling machines. HIMCs offer rigid, horizontally mounted spindles and stable workholding methods, Figure 21-6. Vertical machining centers (VMCs) have vertically mounted spindles and feature the same capabilites as manual vertical milling machines with the added benefit of ‘computer control and automatic tool changing, Figure 21-7, VMCs can be equipped with additional axes of rotation for machining parts with complex features that cannot be tT 21-6, A fixed-bed horizontal machining center. This CNC milling machine fas a 40-ton automatic tool changer and can handle work weighing up to 17,600 lb (8000 ig) Machine table Spindle Figure 21-7. A vertical machining center (YMC) with a 24-too! ‘capacity.Chapter 21. Introduction to CNC Machining machined in a single CNC program cycle within the cubic space provided by a basic 3-axis system, Figure 21-8. The additional axes allow for more flexibility in the types and complexity of parts that can be produced. ‘The advantages of the VMC are tied to its machining capabilities. VMC machines vary in accuraey, precision, speed, power, tool change capabilities, and the ability to add rotational axes, Their biggest disadvantage is cost. As capa- bilities increase, so do the costs of the machines. Costs can be controlled by selecting equipment with fewer options, then tailoring the machine setups in-house to meet the requirements, However, such practices limit the flexibility of the machines. 21.4 CNC Turning Machines CNC turning machines are designed to machine cylindrical parts about an axis of rotation. A. CNC turning machine is, Figure 21-8. Multiaxis machining. AA S-axis CNC milling machine. B—A 6-axis vertical machining center (VMC). 395 basically a computer-controlled lathe, and ithasthe same fea- tures as a manual lathe. A CNC turning machine equipped. with an automatic tool changer is known as a turning center, Figure 21-9. ‘There are many types of CNC turning machines, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. The four types of CNC turning machines described in this chapter are presented in order from least expensive to most expensive because one of the first things a company studies when con- sidering the purchase of CNC equipment is the cost of the machinery. 21.4.1 Basic CNC Lathes Basic CNC lathes are common lathes with CNC capabilities included, Figure 21-10, Some CNC lathes can be operated in ‘manual mode, just ikea traditional engine lathe, a well as in fall CNC mode, The control system built into this machine uses the same type of programming used in more expensive models. Its computer capabilities differ only in the amount of storage memory available. As memory capacity increases, 50 does the cost of the machine. bE Figure 21-9. Turning centers. A—This 4-axis turning center permits operations to be performed on both sides of the ‘workpiece, reducing machining time, B—Another example of 2 4-anis vertical turning center.396 og ais, Figure 21-10. A basic CNC lathe with 2-ax's CNC control Tooling changes are done by the operator. The big- gest advantage of the basic CNC lathe is its cost. Since tool changes are not automated on a basic machine, the cost of the hardware required for such automation is avoided ‘ENC lathes work well in a toolroom environment. Traditional machinists ean operate them manually ot, if a special run of multiple pieces is required, operators can be trained to create programs using conversational language. Thisallows operators to program machines without an intri- cate knowledge of CNC programming. ‘The disadvantage of basic CNC lathes is that they are not suitable for high-volume production. Their speed, pre~ cision, and repeatability are better than in manual machin- ing, but they cannot match the capabilities of more advanced ‘CNG machines. CNC lathes can be equipped with gang-tool setups or automated turrets, described later in this chap- ter, to increase speed. However, their lack of precision and repeatability can create quality problems in high-precision manufacturing 21.4.2 Gang-Tool Lathes Gang-tool lathes are a step up from the basic CNC lathe. Gang-tool lathes have multiple tools mounted along the cross-slide, Figure 21-11. This setup allows different tools to-be used in a single program cycle. The tool to be used is controlled by the position of the cross-slide relative to the ‘workpiece mounted in the spindle and collet. Although this type of setup can be added to a basic CNC lathe, the cross-side travel on a basic machine is usually lim ited toa maximum of 12” to 18”, which does not allow room for several tools tobe et up. Therefore, gang-tool setups typi- «ally require a larger, more expensive machine, The need for a larger cross-slide travel and for higher-volume production usually drive the need to upgrade from a basic CNC lathe to a gang-tool lathe. Machining Fundamentals Gang-tool setup Figure 21-11. Multiple tool setup on @ CNC gang-too! lathe, The workpiece is held in a collet chuck. ‘The advantages of a gang-tool lathe include the ability to produce more parts per hour than a basic CNC lathe. Its cost, while higher than the basic CNC lathe, is still within the range of most manufacturers, The gang-tool setup allows forrapid tool changes ané, aslongas the different parts being machined are of the same or similar diameter, low change over times, ‘The disadvantages of the gang-tool lathe are its limited flexibility and the space required between the tools in the setup. Ifa changeover isrequired between partswhose diame- ters are drastically different, the entire tootholder setup on the cross-slde must be adjusted, adding to the time required to execute the changeover. This is especially true when there are several tools set up along the cross-slide. Gang-tool setups work wel for machining small-diameter parts, Because the part turns between the tools on the cross- slide, the smaller diameters allow for more tools to be set up in gang-type fashion. Larger-diameter parts do not work well ‘with a gang-tool setup, because the space needed between, tools forthe larger-diameter workpiece restricts the number ‘of tools that can be set up on the cross-side. 21.4.3 Turret Lathes CNC lathes that have rotating turret attached to the cross slide are called terret lathes. The computer controls the rotation of the turret and the movement of the eross-slide based on the information written into the CNC program, ‘The part is held in a collet or chuck on the spindle, As the spindle is rotated, the tucret rotates the appropriate tool into place, and the cross-slide feeds the tool into the workpiece, Figure 21-12. The apron feeds the cross-slide along the axis of the workpiece as it rotates. When this machining step is complete the cross-slde withdraws from the workpiece, the ‘turret rotates the next tool into place, and the next machi ing step begins. This process repeats until the machining process is complete,Chapter 21 Inteduction to CNC Machining 12-station turret Tool presetier (NE Sta ne. Singh 1985-2038 AD ee. Figure 21-12. A large turret lathe machining @ camshaft. The workpiece is held in a 3-jaw universal chuck, The cutting tools are held in a 12-station turret and are rotated inta place. The tool presetter measures the offset lengths of the tools held in the turet for locating purposes. ‘The advantages of a turret lathe are its accuracy and speed. With the proper toolholding technology, the machine ‘ean be changed over from one part to another in a minimal, amount of time. The disadvantages of turret lathes include their cost and the skill set needed by operators to operate the equipment effectively. Tooling changes and part setups and change- covers are part of the daily operation of this machine, so the ‘operator must be familiar with the machine controls, Often, the operator has to make frequent adjustments to the pro- gram to modify tooling offsets. The level of operator train- ing required is therefore higher than for basic and gang:tool CNC lathes, 21.4.4 Swiss-Type Turning Centers Complex details require high level of precision in their machining. When a part to be machined includes elaborate detail, Swiss-type turning centers are used, Figure 21-13. ‘These machines use a guide bushing to hold the workpiece tightly at the point of machining. The tools are not fed along the cylindrical axis of the part being machined. Rather, the ‘main spindle behind the guide bushing moves the part along the cylindrical axis. The tools are fed along a direction per- pendicular to the cylindrical axis of the part, as with cross- slide motions on other lathe types, Figure 21-14, The tools ‘ona Swiss-type turning center can be set up gang-tool styl, ‘oraturret can be used. The advantage of a Swiss-type machine is its ability to accurately machine small, complex parts with intricate details, Figure 21-15. The biggest disadvantage is cost. The machines are extremely expensive, and the raw materials needed to take advantage of the capabilities of this type of 397 Swiss-type turning centers Figure 21-13. These 7-axis Swiss-type turning centers have 21 tools each and are coupled with bar feeders to automatically load precision-ground stock into the machine, Sub spindle _Gang-tool style setup Figure 21-14. This Swiss-type turning center comes equipped with an additional axis on the sub spindle, allowing the center to machine both ends of the workpiece simultaneously. This feature, along with a rapid feed rate, significantly reduces cycle times. ‘equipment are also expensive. The guide bushing diameter is not adjustable. To ensure chat the part does not deflect during the machining operation, the stock must be ground to a precise diameter before machining with the Swiss-type turning center can begin. This increases the cost ofthe raw ‘materials significantly. Swiss-type turning centers should be considered when the parts being produced require a high level of accuracy and precision,398 ‘RE Sma. Cy 585-2013. ries ser Figure 21-15. A small, intricate component made of brass bbeing machined on a Swiss-type turning center with 2 gang-tool setup. 21.5 CNC Safety ‘The only difference between CNC machines and their manu- ally operated counterparts is that the CNC machines are automated, They are controlled by a computer system as it, executes a computer program written by a human. There- fore, the safety warnings and cautions related to manual machines are applicable to CNC equipment as well. Review ‘Chapter 3, Shop Safety, for more information. ‘The following are additional safety concerns related solely to CNC equipment: ‘+ Before operating a machine for the first time, obtain training on the machine. You must have a working knowledge of the machine and safe operating prac- tices. Different machines may have different operat- ing mechanisms. Read the operation and maintenance ‘manuals provided with each machine. + Do not remove or bypass guards, doors, and other safety devices on any CNC machine so that they do not work as they were designed. + Know the sequence of operations executed by any program run by the machine you are operating, This allows you to recognize problems with the machine ‘when it does something out ofthe ordinary. + When changing tools manually, wait for the machine axes and the spindle to come to a complete stop. + Know where the emergency stop buttons are located. ‘One will always be located on the control panel and others may be located in other areas around the Machining Funcamentals ‘machine. The emergency stop brings the program to an immediate halt + Know how to manually jog the machine to a point lear of the workpiece. «* Know how to restart the program from its beginning and, if multiple tools are part of the program, how to manually change the tools. This will have to be done in the event of an emergency stop. ‘* Be familiar with all error codes and cautions that may appear on the control screen, Know what steps to take to correct each error code. ‘+ Obtain training in the use of all auxiliary devices on the machine. Many machines have coolant systems, automated lubrication systems for spindles and other moving parts, and automated chip handlers. Know how to maintain these. # Never try to remove chips while the machine is run- ning, even if the chips appear to be clear of the work + Cycle all programs once without a part in place dur- ing setup (this is called a dry eyele) I is best to run the program in single-step mode, with the feed rate overridden to its lowest range. This can prevent an accidental machine crash. # CNC programs can also be verified by machining a sample part from plastic, wax, or a similar inexpen- sive material, Figure 21-16. + Be careful around automated tool changers. They can ‘move without warning and trap an operator against 4 part of the machine. Automated tool changers are usually pneumatically powered, so take care around compressed air systems as wel ERE Sete, ter 19882018 Are ee Figure 21-16. CNC programs can be verified by producing a part inan inexpensive material, such as plastic or wax,Chapter 21 Introduction to CNC Machining + Keep all cooling fans, intakes, and exhausts in the computer control panel clean and free of obstruc- tions. This helps prevent overheating and malfunc- tion of equipment and possibly even equipment fires. 4 If the machine crashes or does anything out of the ‘ordinary, stop the machine, follow OSHA lockout/ tagout procedures, and contact the area supecvisor. Lockout/tagout procedures ensure the equipment is stopped and its energy source is removed to prevent accidental injuries. 21.6 CNC Coordinate Systems ‘The CNC program drives the motors that position all of the moving axes. The program uses a coordinate system to com- municate the direction and distance the workpiece or tool ‘must move to the motors and the control. The most common systems in use today are the Cartesian coordinate system and the polar coordinate system. 21.6.1 Cartesian Coordinate System ‘The Cartesian coordinate system, shown in Figure 21-17, forms the basis of CNC programming. Programs, written in either inch or metric units, specify the destination of a particular movement. With the destination established, the axis of movement (X, Y, or Z) and the direction of movement, (+ or -) can be identified. To determine whether the move- ‘ment is positive (+) or negative (-), the program is written as, though the tool, rather than the work, is doing the moving. Spindle motion is assigned the Z axis. This means that for a drill press or vertical milling machine, the Z axis vertical. For machines such as a lathe or horizontal milling, ‘machine, however, the Z axis is horizontal. See Figure 21-18. 399 ~Z Figure 21-17. The Cartesian coordinate system is the basis of all CNC programming. Each of the three major axes (X, ¥, and 2) is perpendicular (at a 90° angle) to the other two. The arrows indicate the direction of travel, positive or aegative. ‘The system of coordinates used for machine axis designa- tion is specified according to the right-hand rule of Carte- sian coordinates, as shown in Figure 21-19. Machining instructions can be programmed directly {nto computer memory by entering the information through the keypad on the control. Programs can also be created and Cee @ 7 Decision Making and Problem Solving Employers value workers who have the ability to make sound decisions and solve problems that arise. The processes for making decisions and solving problems are similar: 1. Identify the problem or issue to be decided 2. Brainstorm possible solutions. 3. Decide which solution to implement 4. Implement the solution. 5, Evaluate the results. Having the ability to solve problems on the job shows an employer that you are able to handle more responsibility. Solving problems as a group can strengthen the team and help employees feel more pride in their work, Making decisions and solving problems both require critical thinking skills. These are higher-level skills that enable you to think beyond the obvious. You learn to interpret information and make judgments. Super- visors appreciate employees who can analyze problems and think of workable solutions.400 fe ED) wicnw i et . spindle Horizontal Miling Machine Figure 21-18. Axes of machine tool movements. Spindle motion is assigned to the Z axis and therefore differs between vertical spindle and horizontal spindle machines. Machining Fundamentals +Y Figure 21-19. Machine tool axes are specified according to the right-hand system of Cartesian coordinatas. When the right hand is held as shown, the thumb, forefinger, and third finger point in the positive (+) directions of X,Y, and Z axes. stored separately from the machine. ‘These programs ean then be uploaded using portable storage devices, such as USB memory devices, Sometimes machines are networked into a company’s computer systems, In these cases, programs can be uploaded into the control through the computer network. ‘Most programs are written using the Cartesian coordi nate system because defining the location of a given point relative to another point is easier in Cartesian coordinates. Thisis because distances between important points are usu- ally provided on prints using dimensions that are based on the Cartesian coordinate system. 21.6.2 Polar Coordinate System ‘The polar coordinate system is used in CNC programs only when a straight-line distance and travel angle from a tool's current point location is known, An example of a perfect application for polar coordinate programming is a circular pattern of holes around a given point, Figure 21-20. The locations for the holes are defined using a distance from the center point of the circular pattern and an angle relative toan axis that is parallel to ether the X of ¥ axis of the machine. Cartesian coordinates are not used in these cases because doing so would require the programmer to use trigonometry to convert the polar coordinate information into Cartesian coordinates. This would involve rounding multiple decimal values to the third or fourth place, which would cause errors, in programming, The polar coordinate system is not often used. How- ever, when a part is defined with dimensions using the polar coordinate system, having the capability to create programs using this system reduces time and errors associated with the ‘mathematical conversions that would otherwise be required. 21.7 CNC Movement Systems CNC axes are positioned using electrie motors, The two basic types of motors used to drive CNC axes are stepper motors and servomotors.(Chapter 21. Introduction to CNC Machining Yas aus oo oar angle CCW (+) no % * (por) cwl-) ao Polar coordinates: a and r ‘Cartesian coordinates: x and y Figure 21-20. Polar coordinates describe a new location ‘rom the present location (usually the center of a circle) by showing the value of the radius (r) and the polar angle (a). Counterclockwise rotation is positive, clockwise rotation is negative, Efficiency in CNC Macti CNC machine shops can ensure energy- and cost-eficiency by streamlining shop operations and. maintenance. High-efficiency practices include the following: ‘= Perform large work volumes on a complicated setup, rather than repeatedly resetting for smaller batches. ‘© Minimize maintenance costs through regular preven- tion and troubleshooting, ‘= Provide easy access to machines to reduce setup and breakdown time, Special equipment, such as an induction motor with dual winding, can also be used to increase spindle efficiency, When @ spindle is not turning in operation, ‘shops can turn off CNC motors, fans, pumps, and con- veyors to save energy. In addition, simple shop upkeep, such as adjusting the layout of milling equipment and maintaining a clean shop, can improve a shop's overall efficiency. 21.7.1 Stepper Motors Stepper motors ave often used in less expensive CNC machines, especially machines that are used for woodwork- ing purposes, Figure 21-21. They do not require encoders 401 Figure 21-21. This stepper motor controls the Z axis movement on a small Benchtop turning center. Stepper motors are ‘commonly used in open-loop systems, to keep track of the motor’s revolutions relative to the posi- tion of the axis they are driving. An encoder isa transducer that measures the position of moving axes and provides elec- tronic feedback to the control. Stepper motors are typically used in apen-Doop systems. An open-loop system has no means to provide feedback to the control relative to the position of the axis. This requires the machine to be reset fo its zer0 position, often called machine homing, more frequently than a machine using servomotors, Another major drawback of stepper motors: is that they lose torque at higher speeds, which means their machine cycle times must be reduced when cutting forces require higher torque. 21.7.2 Servomotors Servomotors do not lose as much torque at high speeds as stepper motors, so machines equipped with servomotors can remove more material faster, Figure 21-22. However, because of their design, they require encoders to provide feedback to the control relative to the position of the axis they are drt ing, This is known asa closed-loop system. The use of encod- esis critical when precision machining is needed. 21.7.3 Lead Screws and Lead Nuts Both stepper andi servomotors drive the axes of a machine using lead serews. Lead screws are designed to translate the rotating motion of an electric motor into straight-line, or linear, motion. Aslead screws rotate, they cause a lead nat to move along the threads ofthe screw, Figure 21-23. Lead nuts, axe attached to the moving table of a milling machine or to the cross-lide ofa lathe.402 ‘The threaded rods and nuts do not fit tightly together. If they did, you would not be able to turn one while hold- ing the other. The clearance designed into the mating of the rods and nuts is called backlash. Backlash is present in all threaded applications. Figure 21-22. This servomotor controls the ¥ axis mavement ‘on a horizontal machining center (HMC), Servomotors use @ closed-loop system, requiring encoders to provide feedback to the contro Machining Fundamentals Minimizing backlash is critical in CNC machines to ensure precise positioning as the axis changes direction, Lead screws and lead nuts are precision-ground to exacting tolerances to minimize backlash. Encoders help filter out ‘minor backlash but, as these components wear, they often need tobe replaced. Worn lead screws and lead muts result in too much clearance for the encoder to compensate Figure 21-23. A lead screw assembly consisting of a lead screw and a ball bearing nut. The lead screw translates the rotary motion of Une water into Une linear motion Ural moves the nutChapter Review Summary * Computer numerical control (CNC) is a computer- controlled version of the numerical control machines developed in the 1950s, * CNC technology results in faster, more precise machin- ing, but CNC machines typically cost much more than their manual counterparts. * CNC milling machines are similar to traditional milling machines but have built-in CNC capabilities. * Machining centers are CNC milling machines equipped with automatic tool changers. * CNC turning machines consist of computer-controlled lathes, including basic CNC lathes, gang-tool lathes, tur ret lathes, and Swiss-type turning centers. ‘+ All of the safety guidelines for manual machines should be followed for their CNC counterparts ‘+ CNC machines have additional safety guidelines related to the computer and the automation of the equipment. ‘+ CNC programs use the Cartesian coordinate system and the polar coordinate system to communicate the direc- tion and distance a workpiece or tool must move. + CNC axes are driven by stepper motors or servomotors, depending on the speed and cost of the equipment. Review Questions Answer the following questions using the information provided in this chapter. 1, What medium was used to store the programs that controlled machine tools in the original numerical control machines? 2. What technological advance in the 1960s was responsible for dramatically increasing the use of numerical control technology? 3, Name two advantages of using CNC equipment instead of manual methods. 4. Whats the biggest disadvantage |. How many axes of movement does a 16. 18, 19. . Basic CNC milling centers use a method called. center have? that allows operators to select operations from meni without having to know a programming language, Why might a milling center need more axes of rotation than are provided on.a basic model? Describe the difference between a basic CNC lathe and 2 gang-tool lathe. ‘Why might you avoid using a gang-tool lathe for parts that havea relatively large diameter? ‘What isthe purpose of the turret on a turret lathe? |. Why do operators of turret lathes require more training, than those who operate basic CNC lathes? Which type of CNC turning center would be used to machine small parts that have a high degree of claborate detail? When changing tools manually, wait for the machine axesand the to come to a complete stop. . Whatiis the purpose ofa dry cycle? - In the coordinate system, movement is specified ina positive or negative direction along the X, Y, or Z ‘The ____coordinate system specifies movement by giving a straight-line distance and travel angle from a tool’s current point location, 7. Aln) isa transducer that provides electronic feedback about the position of the moving axes to the control in a CNC machine. ‘What is the difference between an open-loop system and a closed-loop system? Why must the lead screws and lead nuts in the motors that drive the CNC machine axes be checked and replaced at regular intervals? 403