JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

Vol.77, February 2011, pp.175-182

Geomorphic and Structural Evidences of Neotectonic Activity

in the Sub-Himalayan Belt of Nahan Salient, NW India

TEJPAL SINGH1,2,3, UMAKANT SHARMA2, A. K. AWASTHI3, N. S. VIRDI4 and RAVINDRA KUMAR2

1
CSIR-Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation, Bangalore – 560 037.
2
Department of Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh – 160 014
3
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee – 247 667
4
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun – 248 001
Email: geotejpal@yahoo.co.in, tejpal@cmmacs.ernet.in

Abstract: Neotectonism in the Sub-Himalayan belt is not new. Moreover, the word ‘Sub-Himalaya’ is almost synonymous
with ‘neotectonic activity’. In the present paper, we report some of the most convincing geomorphic and structural
evidences of neotectonic activity from the Sub-Himalayan belt in the Nahan Salient. The geomorphic evidences mainly
include the four geomorphic surfaces identified from the transverse topographic profiles drawn parallel to the Himalayan
front. These surfaces are commonly covered with terrace deposits that are tilted as well as faulted at a number of places.
A number of faults, directly observable in the field, are normal in nature and they are oriented at high angles to the
Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT). These faults are similar to the E-W extension in southern Tibet in response to the
oblique convergence of India at ~N20oE in the NW Himalaya. They are attributable to the kinematics of neotectonic
compression along the HFT, the frontal ramp-oblique ramp-frontal ramp geometry of the thrust fault and related
adjustments.

Keywords: Geomorphology, Neotectonics, Nahan Salient, Sub-Himalaya.

INTRODUCTION displacing the present topographic surface and tilting and

Reports on neotectonism in the Sub-Himalayan belt are
not new (Nakata, 1972; Srivastava and John, 1999; Singh
et al. 2001). Moreover, they are so common that the word
‘Sub-Himalaya’ in the literature has become almost
synonymous with ‘neotectonic activity’. It is interesting to
note that the manifestations of neotectonic activity have been
mainly investigated along some particular segments of the
HFT zone eg. Kangra, Pinjore and Dehradun in the NW
Himalaya (Nakata, 1972; Srivastava and John, 1999; Singh
et al. 2001; Kumar et al. 2006), thereby partly ignoring some
of the key areas such as the Nahan Salient in the NW
Himalaya, where relatively less amount of published work
is available (Singh and Awasthi, 2010 and references
therein). This may leave significant gaps in our
understanding of the nature of neotectonic activity, especially
when we talk of significant differences in the convergence
rates and slips rates in the NW Himalaya. In the present
paper, we take up investigations in the Sub-Himalayan belt
of the Nahan Salient and present some evidences of
neotectonic activity. The evidences are mainly in the form
of geomorphic surfaces (covered by terraces), active faulting
faulting of recent to sub-recent terraces.
STUDY AREA
The study area has been chosen in the Nahan Salient,
between the Dehradun and Kangra Reentrants that are
located to its east and west, respectively (Fig. 1). The three
principal areas, i.e. Dehradun and Kangra Reentrants and
the Nahan Salient are geologically comprised of the similar
Sub-Himalayan sequences (Parkash et al. 1980; Raiverman,
2002) bound by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) towards
the north and the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) towards
the south (Fig.1). In each of these areas, the Sub-Himalayan
sequences are believed to override the alluvium of the
Indo-Gangetic plains along the HFT (Powers et al. 1998).
However, there are significant differences in the geomorphic
setup of these three areas (Nakata, 1972; Delcaillau et al.
2006; Singh, 2008; Singh and Jain, 2009) probably owing
to the variation in the tectonic setup (Powers et al. 1998)
and/or basement geometries (Raiverman, 2002). The
geomorphic manifestations along the HFT zone in the Nahan

0016-7622/2011-77-2-175/$ 1.00 © GEOL. SOC. INDIA

176 TEJPAL SINGH AND OTHERS

74 E 80 E

MB
T
36 N
N
HF

Kangra
T

32 N 100 km

Kan
o
32 Dehradun

MC
g
ra R
Delhi

T
een
tran
t
Sunder Nagar Rampur
Hoshiarpur

Simla

o
31

Na
ha
Chandigarh n Na
Sa ha
n
lie M
BT
nt De
0 20 40 60 Km
hra Deh
du
n R radun
ee
MCT Main Central Thrust ntr
an
MBT Main Boundary Thrust HF
T
t
HFT Himalayan Frontal Thrust
Higher Himalaya
M
Lesser Himalaya Hardwar BT
Sub Himalaya
Indo-Gangetic Plains 77
o
78
o

Fig.1. Litho-tectonic map of the Himalaya in NW India showing the three major subdivisions of the orogen. See inset for location. Note
that the curved nature of the MBT has given rise to structural ‘reentrants’ and ‘salients’. The three key areas discussed in the text
are the Nahan Salient that is bound towards its west by the Kangra reentrant and towards its east by the Dehradun reentrant.

Salient are mainly restricted to the topographic break that is
marked by discontinuous scarps at places and some drainage
anomalies (Singh, 2006). However, investigations in the field
with some aid from the remote sensing images clearly reveal
more convincing evidences that are directly related to the
activity along the HFT in this area.
DATA AND METHODS
The primary sources of data used in the present study
are the Survey of India (SOI) topographic maps (1:50,000).
These maps have been very handy in the field, especially
when they were co-registered with the satellite imageries
(Landsat TM) in a GIS environment. The digitized
topography from the SOI maps were overlain by the satellite
images to readily obtain a 3D visualization of the field area.
Although this technique is not a new one, it provided very
useful aid in identifying different geomorphic surfaces and
locating terraces within the Sub-Himalayan belt, away from
the HFT zone. Further, detailed field investigations in
identified areas brought to light some very useful evidences
of young deformation. However, in a rapidly eroding
environment it is almost impossible to find any datable
material thereby no actual temporal constraints on the
activity were possible.
EVIDENCES OF NEOTECTONIC ACTIVITY
The evidences of neotectonic activity cited in this paper
are mainly observed directly in the field with some aid from
remote sensing images. They are mainly geomorphic and
structural in nature. The topography, where possible, has

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 GEOMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES OF NEOTECTONIC ACTIVITY IN SUB-HIMALAYA, NW INDIA 177

also been used as a relative tool to measure the temporal
aspect of the deformation. However, no absolute dating
technique has been used due to a number of reasons, mainly
being the rapid rate of erosion. The geomorphic evidences
are mainly related to the geomorphic surfaces that are
covered by fluvial terraces at a number of places whereas
the structural evidences are in the form of normal faulting
observed in the field.
Geomorphic Evidence: Straight Line Nature of the HFT
The most apparent and important geomorphic evidence
comes from the almost straight line nature of the Himalayan
Front in this area (Fig. 2a). In fact, a visual analysis clearly
indicates that this particular segment of the HFT is even
straighter than the HFT in the adjoining reentrants. The HFT
zone is marked by small and discontinuous scarps at a few
places, with almost no direct evidence of thrusting along
the front (Fig. 2b). The tectonic significance of the line of
HFT is apparent from the fact that it forms the contact
between the two basic geomorphic entities i.e. the hills and
the plains.
Geomorphic Evidence: Topographic Profiles Parallel to
the HFT
Topographic profiles parallel to the tectonic line are one
of the most robust tools to identify geomorphic evidences
related to deformation. In our study, two topographic
profiles, parallel to the trend of the Himalaya, which also
conforms to the strike of the HFT, have been constructed
from the topographic data. Each of these profiles clearly
shows four geomorphic surfaces (Fig.3). Amongst the
four surfaces, the highest and the oldest is named the
‘Dhadwali surface’ the next lower surfaces are ‘Dunga
surface’, ‘Bhud surface’ and ‘Kambala surface’ respectively.
The ‘Dhadwali surface’ lies about 55-60 m above the present
stream bed. It is highly dissected and commonly present as
erosional remnants. The ‘Dunga surface’ lies about 40-
45 m above the present stream bed. It is separated from the
‘Dhadwali surface’ by steep escarpments. It is relatively
less dissected than the ‘Dhadwali surface’. The ‘Bhud’
surface is a relatively more extensive surface lying about
15 m from the active stream bed (Fig. 3c). It is separated
from the ‘Dunga surface’ by subdued slopes which are
highly dissected and eroded. It is comprised of 2-3 m thick
cover of terrace deposits and is cultivated and habitated at
most of the places. The lowest and the youngest is the
‘Kambala surface’. It lies about 5m from the present
stream bed. It is covered by a thin veneer of terrace
deposits. It is also extensive and relatively least dissected
(Fig.3d).

(a) 76o55’ 77o00’ 77o05’ 77o10’ 77o15’

.
rR

IFT
ga
ag
Gh

Morni
30o40’

HFT
30 40’
A
o

Tarlokpur
0 10
IF
(b) T Km
HF
T
30o35’

B
30 35’
o

Upper Siwalik strata

Himalayan Mountain Front

Alluvium of the Indo-Gangetic HF

T
30o30’

Kala Amb
R.
da

30 30’
an

o
rk
Ma

76o55’ 77o00’ 77o05’ 77o10’ 77o15’

Fig.2. The Himalayan mountain front in the Nahan Salient. (a) It is almost straight as marked by the trace of the HFT. (b) Small
discontinuous scarps are present in the field.

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178 TEJPAL SINGH AND OTHERS

SW
500 A 500 SW B
Dhadwali Surface Dhadwali Surface
450 Dunga Surface Dunga Surface 450

Bhud Surface Bhud Surface

400 400
Kambala Surface
Kambala Surface

(c) (d)
Bhud Surface

Kambala Surface
Flow direction
Present river bed

Flow direction

Fig.3. Transverse topographic profiles A and B show four geomorphic surfaces present in the Nahan Salient. For locations of A and B
refer to Fig.2 and discussion in the text. (c) Bhud surface and (d) Kambala surface as observed in the field are covered by terrace
deposits.

Geomorphic Evidence: Presence of Tilted Terraces
The terraces present in these low lying hills are
geomorphic and sedimentologic expression of form and
process adjustments in a fluvial system (Schumm et al.
1993). They usually occur as broad and fairly flat surfaces
that provide excellent ground for agricultural activities
and habitation. They are usually bound by the stream
channels, often elongated parallel to their length. They are
not observed beyond the hills and therefore are attributed
to the tectonic uplift along the HFT. Terraces have developed
along stream segments undergoing incision, shifting and
lateral erosion of banks and on the non-cliff side of meander
loops.
Although the presence of terrace surfaces in close
proximity to the HFT is itself indicative of neotectonic
activity of the HFT. Tilting of the observed terrace surfaces
at a few places most convincingly indicate to recent
deformation mainly related to the HFT (Fig. 4).

(a)

(b)

Fig.4. Terrace deposits within the Siwalik hills are often tilted and/or faulted in response to neotectonic deformation along the HFT. The
Siwalik bedrock dipping about 30o towards NE is covered by terrace material. The terrace surface is also dipping (tilted) in the
same direction by a lesser amount. A fault cuts across the terrace surface offsetting it by about 60cm. The fault present in the
figure is normal in nature.

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 GEOMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES OF NEOTECTONIC ACTIVITY IN SUB-HIMALAYA, NW INDIA 179

Structural Evidence: Faulting within Terrace Deposits

The presence of the terraces in the close proximity of
the HFT in its hanging wall block is a clear manifestation of
the tectonic uplift along the HFT. Moreover, the terraces
are tilted at a few places. At some of these places cross cutting
faults in the terrace deposits are also present (Fig. 4). These
do not leave anything to imagination, rather are the most
convincing evidence to the recent deformation (Fig.4). It is
interesting to note that the fault shown in Fig.4 is normal in
nature with strike (NNE-SSW), i.e. at high angle to the HFT.
These faults are commonly sub-vertical (dipping 75o-80o)
on either side.
Structural Evidence: Fault Offsetting the Present
Topographic Surface
A number of instances of faulting within the uppermost
units of the Siwaliks have also been observed (Fig.5). All of
these are normal faults oriented at high angles (N-S and
NNE-SSW) to the HFT. The most interesting was a set of
conjugate faults which has disrupted the present topographic
surface (Fig.5a, b). Though we do not have absolute ages

Topography collapse due to faulting

(a)

(b)

(c) (d)
Fig.5. Number of faults directly observed in the field. Note that all the faults are normal in nature and are oriented at high angles to the
HFT. In (a) a clear topographic collapse can be seen. The nature of offset has been used to infer a recent event that has not given
enough time for the vegetation to stabilize.

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180
for the faulting event, the topographic scenario seems self
indicative that the faulting is very recent in age, based on
the geomorphic relationship. The top surface that sunk along
with the faulting event is still overhanging. The faulting has
not even allowed the vegetation to settle again.
DISCUSSION
The present area of investigation is marked by a sinuous
trace of the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and an almost
straight Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) that marks the
mountain front (Figs. 1, 2). The straight line nature of the
HFT conforms to the initial geometry of the thrust fault which
becomes sinusoidal at a later stage (Dubey and Bhakuni,
2004), as in case of the MBT. The sinusoidal trace of the
MBT has been geometrically compared to the frontal ramp
(NW-SE oriented segment) and oblique ramp (NNW-SSE
oriented segment) geometry of the thrust fault (Dubey, 1997;
Dubey and Bhakuni, 2004). This frontal ramp-oblique ramp-
frontal ramp geometry gives rise to the reentrant-salient-
reentrant setup in the Sub-Himalayan belt of NW India
(Fig.1).
Further, based on the field investigation carried out in
the Sub-Himalayan belt, a variety of geomorphic and
Table 1. Generalized stratigraphy of the area (modified after Raiverman, 2002)
Main Units Formation
Post-Siwalik Alluvium/Piedmont
deposits
Terrace deposits
Boulder
Conglomerate
U. S I W A L I K
Pinjor
Siwalik Group Tatrot
L. S I W A L I K
Nahan
- - - - - - - - - Tectonic contact - - - - - - - - -
Pre-Siwalik deposits Subathu
(Lower Tertiaries)
TEJPAL SINGH AND OTHERS
structural observations are recorded from the Nahan Salient.
The most interesting of these observations are the four
geomorphic surfaces demonstrated by the topographic
profiles parallel to the HFT (Fig.3). These geomorphic
surfaces are readily comparable to the four geomorphic
surfaces reported from the Pinjore Dun (Nakata, 1972) and
Dehradun (Singh et al. 2001). The presence of these surfaces,
spread over a distance of more than 200km laterally along
the HFT in the three key areas of Kangra Reentrant, Nahan
Salient and Dehradun Reentrant from west to east in that
order, suggest to an almost similar (not exactly same)
geomorphic response to the neotectonic deformation along
the HFT. However, the difference is mainly in the
preservation and expanse of these geomorphic surfaces.
They are poorly preserved and less extensive in the Nahan
Salient, probably due to more focused erosion in the drainage
basins by smaller streams. Alternatively, the absence of any
major drainage system in the Nahan Salient may not have
provided any extensive areas for the development and
preservation of geomorphic surfaces.
The geomorphic surfaces wherever present are covered
by terrace material at a number of places that are all post-
Siwalik, i.e. Upper Pleistocene to Recent, in age (Table 1).
Tilting of the terraces is clearly indicative of post-Siwalik
Lithological characters Age (approx.)
Fluvial unconsolidated sands, silts and clays of Recent
floodplain deposits
- - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - -
Fluvial deposits poorly sorted and unconsolidated, U. Pleistocene
consists of silts, sands, gravels, clays with variable
proportion of gravels.
- - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - -
Coarse boulder conglomerate comprised of cobbles, L. Pleistocene
pebbles, clasts which are either clast or mud supported
with inclusions of sand, grit or clay nodules
Sandstones, siltstones and clays comprise bulk of the U. Pliocene
lithology. Well bedded bright buff coloured clays and
massive sandstone units
Soft sandstones, clays comprise bulk of the lithology Mid. Pliocene
with some conglomerate. Grey clays are characteristic
- - - - - - - - - Tectonic contact - - - - - - - - -
Sandstones comprise bulk of the lithology, with minor Mid. Miocene
shales, clays and few pseudoconglomerates. Siltstones to L. Pliocene
greyish-green to yellow-brown. Well bedded thick
sandstone units
Earthy yellow to red shales, olive green splintery shales Eocene
and greenish-grey sandstone
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 GEOMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES OF NEOTECTONIC ACTIVITY IN SUB-HIMALAYA, NW INDIA
neotectonic deformation that has even led to faulting at a
number of places (Figs. 4, 5). These as well as other faults
observed in the field are normal (extensional) in nature.
Based on the model experiments Dubey and Bhakuni (2004)
demonstrated that such extensional faults oriented at high
angles to the thrust faults are a result of the kinematics of
compression and frontal ramp-oblique ramp-frontal ramp
geometry of the thrust fault. These normal faults are similar
to the orthogonal faults of the Tethyan Himalaya (Dubey
and Bhakuni, 2004) and also the E-W extension in southern
Tibet that is attributed to the oblique convergence of India
at ~N20oE in the NW Himalaya (Armijo et al. 1986; Paul et
al. 2001). In the present case, we attribute the observed
normal faults to the neotectonic compression along the HFT
and related adjustments.
CONCLUSIONS
The present field observations and topographic analysis
in the Nahan Salient reveal convincing evidences of the
ongoing tectonic activity along the HFT. Based on the
comparison with adjoining areas, it is inferred that the
topography in the Sub-Himalayan belt of NW India has
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(Received: 30 November 2009; Revised form accepted: 7 December 2010)

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.77, FEB. 2011