PARENTING PRACTICES ACROSS CULTURES

All parents can agree that the purpose of child rearing and discipline is to help a kid become
a successful, prosocial member of society. But the way a parent raises a child to become an
effective member of their community is largely based on cultural norms. Depending on where a
child is born on the globe, the cultural norms for parenting may be rooted in traditions that go
back thousands of years. In other parts of the world, the norms are more dynamic and change
with the tide of public opinion. But whether a parent offers stern guidance, or focuses on a kid’s
autonomy, all parents can agree that the kid’s future is what drives the way they praise and
punish.

Parenting

Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting

the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of
a child from infancy to adulthood.

Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively to the biological
relationship. Performing the role of a parent by care-giving, nurturance, and protection of the
child by a natural or substitute parent is called parenting. Parenting styles vary by historical time
period, race/ethnicity, social class, and other social features.

Parenting practices

Parenting practices refer to specific things that parents do while raising their children.
These can refer to the imposing and use of schedules, rules, expectations, punishments, rewards,
etc. Basically, parenting practices can refer to any type of regular interaction that a parent has
with their children.

Parenting practices, on the other hand, are the specific behaviors that parents use to
socialize their children. In reality, parenting involves both parenting styles (the stable “emotional
climate”) and specific parenting practices (concrete behaviors).
 Parenting skills

Parenting skills are the guiding forces of a "good parent" to lead a child into a healthy
adult, they influence on development, maintenance, and cessation of children’s negative and
positive behaviors. Parenting takes a lot of skill and patience and is constant work and growth.
The cognitive potential, social skills, and behavioral functioning a child acquires during the early
years are fundamentally dependent on the quality of their interactions with their parents.

How to develop an Effective Parenting plan OR

CONSTRUCTS OF PARENTING PRACTICES

Effective Parenting practices include some constructs:

 Parental involvement
 parental monitoring
 parental goals, values and aspirations

Parental involvement

Two types of parental involvement practices (Epstein, 1996)

1. Parents- initiated involvement practices

Parent initiated involvement practices represent parental efforts to become directly involved with
school decisions and activities.

2. School-initiative involvement practices

School initiative involvement practices represent efforts by the school to provide parents with
routine information about school policies, procedures, and events, as well as their children’s
progress.

Parental monitoring

Parental monitoring refer to the constructs used to explain parenting behaviors, knowledge, or
attitudes that influence adolescent use of free time:
 Monitoring the completion of homework
 Supervising activities with peers
 Checking on school progress

 Parents are a child’s first teachers :

 Parents are a child’s first teachers, and a nurturing relationship between a parent and child
supports optimal early childhood brain development.
 Children develop in an environment of relationships, and the environment into which a child
is born and the type of parenting that she receives have a major effect on her later
development and well-being.
 The influence of these early relationships and environments becomes evident the nature of
the attachment that develops between a child and her parents. Attachment refers an infants’
ability to form a trusting relationship with his mother or primary caregiver. Healthy
attachment, in turn, establishes a strong foundation from which a child can explore the world,
safe in the knowledge that they can count on safety and care from their parents. Parents, in
turn, are able to help their children develop secure attachments by providing consistent and
nurturing support and care. When children lack a positive and supportive relationship with a
caregiver, they are much more likely to form insecure attachment; which can lead to
behavioral and emotional problems as they mature.

 Cultural Significance in Parenting :

 Families with young children are becoming more racially and ethnically diverse in Memphis
and across the country, and early childhood parenting practices differ across societies and
cultures.
 Cultural norms about parenting practices typically influence how children are raised. These
norms affect what beliefs and values parents teach their children, what behaviors are
considered appropriate, and the methods used to teach these values and behavior.
 However, despite some differences among cultures, there are key common parenting themes
that emerge across cultures. Looking at parenting in different American cultures, the Centers
for Disease Control (2008) found that “overall, parents from all cultural backgrounds held
many similar views about which child behaviors were good or bad.”
 There was a consensus among surveyed parents that children should be obedient and not
“talk back”. “They should show respect for adults, parents, and elders; be polite, have good
manners, and not interrupt others, particularly adults; and share, be honest, and do well in
school.”
 Parents in all of the surveyed groups reported disliking their children’s disobedience, temper
tantrums, and fights with their siblings. Understanding the differences and commonalities in
parenting practices and child-rearing goals across cultural groups is a significant step in
developing culturally relevant guidelines and support for parents of all backgrounds.

 Culturally “Responsive” Parenting:

 Current research is moving towards an agreement upon culturally universal practices to the
successful parenting of infants. An ambitious and revealing, multinational examination of
best parenting practices conducted by the World Health Organization in 2006 found that one
of the most universally important, healthy, parenting behaviors is caregiver responsiveness.
The study examined caregiving behaviors for families in both rural and urban communities in
developed versus developing nations in the following areas: India, Colombia, the United
States, Chile, East Africa, Mexico, Jamaica, Brazil, South Africa and the Netherlands.
Results of the study universally found that caregiver responsiveness was directly related to
positive child development in a number of areas.
 Responsiveness refers to a caregivers' ability to be prompt, receptive to the child's behavior
and appropriate to a child's needs. This interaction can vary depending on the type of
behavior the caregiver is responding to (e.g., a sign of illness, a verbal signal, a facial
expression).
 Typically, responsiveness is a three-step process consisting of observation (observing a
child's cues), interpretation (interpreting signals such as illness), and action (working to meet
a child's needs).
 The results of the WHO study found that across cultures, maternal responsiveness was
associated with "social competence and fewer behavioral problems at three years; increased
intelligence quotient (IQ) and cognitive growth at four years; school achievement at seven
years; as well as higher IQ and self-esteem, and fewer behavioral and emotional problems at
age 12."
 The findings of the study further reinforce the idea that demographics are not destiny as
children who demonstrated above average health and development despite incredibly
impoverished environments, showed that caregiver responsiveness was a crucial factor for
their success.

FAMILY TYPES AROUND THE WORLD

 Nuclear Families
 Single-Parent Families
 Adoptive/Foster Families
 Extended Family

Types of parenting styles

Your parenting style can affect everything from how much your child weighs to how she
feels about herself. It's important to ensure your parenting style is supporting healthy growth and
development because the way you interact with your child and how you discipline her will
influence her for the rest of her life. 

Researchers have identified four types of parenting styles:

 Authoritarian
 Authoritative
 Permissive
 Uninvolved
Each style takes a different approach to raising children, and can be identified by a number of
different characteristics.

1. Authoritarian Parenting
 Authoritarian parents believe kids should follow the rules without exception.

Authoritarian parents are famous for saying, "Because I said so," when a child questions the
reasons behind a rule. They are not interested in negotiating and their focus is on obedience.

They also don't allow kids to get involved in problem-solving challenges or obstacles. Instead,
they make the rules and enforce the consequences with little regard for a child's opinion. 

Authoritarian parents may use punishments instead of discipline. So rather than teach a child
how to make better choices, they're invested in making kids feel sorry for their mistakes.

Children who grow up with strict authoritarian parents tend to follow rules much of the time.
But, their obedience comes at a price.

Children of authoritarian parents are at a higher risk of development self-esteem problems

because their opinions aren't valued.

They may also become hostile or aggressive. Rather than think about how to do things better in
the future, they often focus on the anger they feel toward their parents. Since authoritarian
parents are often strict, their children may grow to become good liars in an effort to avoid
punishment.
2. Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parents have rules and they use consequences, but they also take their children's
opinions into account. They validate their children's feelings, while also making it clear that the
adults are ultimately in charge. 

Authoritative parents invest time and energy into preventing behavior problems before they start.
They also use positive discipline strategies to reinforce good behavior, like praise and reward
systems.
Children raised with authoritative discipline tend to be happy and successful. They're also more
likely to be good at making decisions and evaluating safety risks on their own.
3. Permissive Parenting

Permissive parents are lenient. They often only step in when there's a serious problem.

They're quite forgiving and they adopt an attitude of "kids will be kids." When they do use
consequences, they may not make those consequences stick. They might give privileges back if a
child begs or they may allow a child to get out of time-out early if he promises to be good. 

Permissive parents usually take on more of a friend role than a parent role. They often encourage
their children to talk with them about their problems, but they usually don't put much effort into
discouraging poor choices or bad behavior. 

Kids who grow up with permissive parents are more likely to struggle academically. They may
exhibit more behavioral problems as they don't appreciate authority and rules. They often have
low self-esteem and may report a lot of sadness.

They're also at a higher risk for health problems, like obesity, because permissive parents
struggle to limit junk food intake. They are even more likely to have dental cavities because
permissive parents often don't enforce good habits, like ensuring a child brushes his teeth.

4. Uninvolved Parenting

Uninvolved parents tend to have little knowledge of what their children are doing.

There tend to be few rules. Children may not receive much guidance, nurturing, and parental
attention.

Uninvolved parents expect children to raise themselves. They don't devote much time or energy
into meeting children's basic needs.
Uninvolved parents may be neglectful but it's not always intentional. A parent with mental health
issues or substance abuse problems, for example, may not be able to care for a child's physical or
emotional needs on a consistent basis. 

At other times, uninvolved parents lack knowledge about child development. And sometimes,
they're simply overwhelmed with other problems, like work, paying bills, and managing a
household.

Children with uninvolved parents are likely to struggle with self-esteem issues. They tend to
perform poorly in school. They also exhibit frequent behavior problems and rank low in
happiness.
Factors affecting child rearing

Social class, wealth, culture and income have a very strong impact on what methods of

child rearing parents use. Cultural values play a major role in how a parent raises their child.
However, parenting is always evolving; as times, cultural practices, social norms, and traditions
change.

A family's social class plays a large role in the opportunities and resources that will be
available to a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling,
communities, and level of parental attention available compared to middle-class or upper-class.
Also, lower working-class families do not get the kind of networking that the middle and upper
classes do through helpful family members, friends, and community individuals or groups as
well as various professionals or experts.

Short Summary Of Parenting Types

Four types of Parenting styles

 Authoritarian parenting
 Authoritative parenting
 Permissible parenting
 Uninvolved parenting

1- Authoritarian parenting
It is where parents raise their children by establishing very strict rules with no question.

Positive impacts:-

 Children tend to have high academic achievements.

 They tend to very obedient and never disregard any rules that is given rules to them.

Negative impacts:-

 Children will develop anxiety and depression from strict parenting.

 Children will hate school and not value school as a place of socialization.
 Children will form suicidal thoughts.
 Children will have the inability to form their own opinions and thoughts.

2-Authoritative parenting

It is where parents established strict rules in the household but allow open discussion with their
children.

Positive impacts:-

 Child has the ability to form their own descisions.

 Child has ability to develop group and self identity.

Negative impacts:-

 Child may become stubborn about something they don’t get from their parents.
 Children may not obey their parents.

3-Permissible parenting

It is where parents have minimal discipline for their children and have high responsiveness for
them.

Positive impacts:-

 They tend to treat their children as their friends.

 Children tend to be delighted to get a lot of love from their parents
Negative impacts:-

 They may develop poor social skills for their peers.

 Children may tend to lack their own self discipline.

4-Uninvolved parenting

It is where parents have no involvement in raising their children.

Positive impacts:-

 Children can have the opportunity to develop their own guidance by joining into clubs or
activities.
 Children have the ability to seek for adult that can guide them who actually cares for who
they are.

Negative impacts:-

 They can be socially isolated from their peers.

 They are unable to control their aggressive behavior.

A COMPARISON OF EASTERN AND WESTERN PARENTING STYLE

Despite our squeamishness about cultural stereotypes, there's a marked difference between
Eastern and Western parenting styles.

Eastern parenting styles

Some parents in the east follow what they have learnt from their parents while others rely on the
new-age media. These parents generally find it harder to let go (regardless of their children’s
age) and this can be reflected by the way they bring up their children.

 Sleep separately :

In eastern culture parents provide children an usual hovering around them. They are not trained
to sleep alone until 5 age .Parents in east provide super protection to their children.

 Meal time :

Parents in the east are usually concerned with tidiness, efficiency, and they generally see the
need to feed their children. As such, these children do not get opportunities to develop the
necessary motor skills early or capability to eat by themselves.

 Play dates :

In the eastern cultures, where several mothers meet and chat while their children play in a home
or outdoor environment. However, these mothers may show some hesitation about having their
children venture beyond the ‘comfort zone.’ Generally, these mothers do not allow their young
children to play in the dirt, and they are quick to clean up any mess.

 Strict upbringing :

Parents in the east may adhere to stricter routines, and due to their higher expectations set for
their children. While success is important, western parents also look at other ways to develop
their children. As such, they do not generally push their children but allow them to pursue their
interests (be it academic, sports, music, or others).

 Leaving home at age 18:

In eastern culture there is no concept for children to leave their homes at age18 . They live up
with their parents till they get married or for their whole life.

Western parenting style

In the west, interaction with communities, educators, and pediatricians more commonly affect
parenting styles. Primarily, independence starts very young in the American households, and
many parents ensure that their children’s upbringing reflect this unique quality.

 Sleep separately :

Most American babies do not sleep with their parents from the early days. A new baby room is
usually created from day one. Sometimes, a monitoring system is put in place to provide
consistent checking. the western babies have been trained to soothe themselves to sleep.

 Meal time :

Beyond bottle feeding, meals are usually placed in front of the child. A bib is a must to begin this
meal adventure in most American households. Every meal resembles an exploration and it
usually starts with the child’s attempt to hold the plastic spoon or fork. If this fails, the child will
attempt to reach for the soft broccoli, carrots, or other food items with his/her hands and
subsequently, aim for the mouth. Mostly, the child will miss its mouth, and create a mess.

 Play dates:

These are common in the US and they are constantly arranged to allow the child to interact with
others. Often, such playdates are arranged among mothers who may not be related to each other.
These unstructured play opportunities encourage children to venture and explore their
environment, and they are not the same as organized activities where children would have to
follow instructions. Some parents do not mind their children playing in the dirt or mud on such
playdates.

 Strict upbringing :

This exists everywhere and this applies to both cultures although most would like to believe that
western parents are more liberal. This may be true to an extent but we can still see some applying
their grounding and timeout rules on a consistent basis. Though the western parents differ in their
extent of monitoring, their desire to ensure obedience and discipline in their households is still
apparent in many instances.

 Leaving home at age 18 :

The biggest difference comes when the child becomes college bound at around 17 or 18 years
old – this represents the first step for many American teenagers to leave their family homes. In
the US, most parents expect their teenagers to leave home at this point. This transition, from
staying at home to leaving for college or university, is significant as most will seek jobs and not
return to stay in the family home thereafter.

Many parents in the US regard their teenagers as independent at this point though this may not
be the case in the eyes of the eastern parents. Many parents in the US regard their teenagers as
independent at this point though this may not be the case in the eyes of the eastern parents.

A review of parenting around the Globe

1- Europe and the Ban on Corporal Punishment

The biggest trend in European child discipline is the move to make spanking, striking, or
slapping a child illegal. The push for corporal punishment bans has largely been led by the
human rights organization The Council of Europe. The organization proposed the ban in 2009
and it has since been ratified by more than 23 countries. France was the most recent country to
outlaw spanking, passing a law to end the practice in 2016. Sweden, on the other hand, was a
pioneer of such bans, passing a law to end spanking as early as 1979.

This is not to say that there is no discipline in European countries. It’s true that many parents
prefer to emphasize their child’s autonomy by allowing them to make mistakes and learn from
them. However, the French, for instance, are notoriously icy in their dealings with the children,
preferring that they not interrupt adults and making sure that children understand their place,
often bluntly and verbally. Germans, likewise, have a tendency to lean into harsh verbal
corrections in extreme circumstances.
 2- Britain and the Naughty Step

The Brits have seen a big push in discipline that leans on positive parenting. In other words,
British parents have been moving toward gentle praise and encouragement, rather yelling or
hitting their children when disciplining. Some of this may be due, in part, to the rise of the “super
nanny” style of parenting which focuses on the importance of interaction and praise, along with
the use of timeouts on the “naughty step” in order to give children a moment to think about their
behavior.

3- The United States and the Evangelical Rod

Discipline in the United States is as diverse as the parents who populate the country from sea
to shining sea. However, the United States is unique in the world in its view towards corporal
punishment. As recently as the 1980s, above 90 percent of the population believed that spanking
a child was a reasonable form of discipline. While that number has fallen to around 70 percent,
there are still many places in the U.S. where a child can even be paddled in school for bad
behavior.

4- Collectivist Asia and Discipline to Save Face

Many Asian parents put a tremendous emphasis on a child growing to be part of a collective
society, both in the family and outside the family, wherein members are encouraged to be
respectful above all else. However, the discipline that goes with raising a respectable child does
not emerge until around age 5, when they enter the “age of understanding.” Up until that point,
parents in Asian cultures often appear to be the most permissive parents anywhere.

5- Hunter-Gatherer Village-Raised Children

The sentiment that “it takes a village to raise a child” is one that originates amongst African
tribes. To that end, children of many tribes are essentially never alone and are enculturated into
the tribal values through intense close contact with other members of the tribe.

For some tribal children, their feet don’t even touch the ground for the first years of their life
as they are passed from adult to adult. Their cries are almost immediately attended to and
everyone has a stake in which the kid becomes. Because any adult who is with the child is
responsible for that child, discipline is shared among members of the community, but reasoning
is more often employed than harsh punishment. Values and morals are passed down through
folktales and through modeling from elders. The kid soaks it up through listening and proximity.

Following are few features that vary across the world

1. Child’s Independence and Autonomy

In Japan, children as young as six years old walk to school and run errands sans
supervision, even in the bustling city of Tokyo, according to The Atlantic. The country's crime
rates are exceptionally low, and parents expect others in the community to help look after their
children.

Kids in Japan are seen using public transportation on their own from young ages. Parents
believe it’s important to give young children the skills they need to find their way on their own. 

Kids don't need a chaperone to help get them to school, nor do they need anyone else
cleaning up after them once there. From as early as first grade, Japanese students sweep and mop
classrooms and hallways, dust, and even sometimes clean the bathrooms in their schools,
according to Mic.

2. Babies napping Patterns (even during the winter)

It’s common practice in Nordic countries for babies to nap outside. Parents in Norway,
Sweden, and Finland believe that sleeping outside offers health benefits.
Even in below-freezing weather, babies are often bundled up and put down for a rest in their
strollers in the cold temperatures. Parents believe it’s better for kids to have fresh air and they
think it reduces their risk of catching a cold or flu from the indoor air.
Scandinavian children are raised on the foundation of "open-air living." It isn't abnormal to
see babies napping outside in their strollers, unattended, even in the wintertime.

.
3. Toilet training
Chinese babies are taught to relieve themselves into the toilet on command of a parent's
whistle, sometimes starting when they are only a few months old. Many kids are fully potty
trained by age 2, according to The Washington Post.

6- 4. Less time in the classroom/ Frequent Breaks From School

Students in Finland rank among the smartest in the world — they are consistently at or near
the top rankings for math, science, and reading, according to The Times. Some might be
surprised to discover that they don't start school until they turn seven.

Before the age of seven, children are expected to "play and be physically active," calling the
first seven years of life "a time for creativity."

And yet while the homework is minimal and holiday breaks are long— up to 11 weeks — the
Finnish education system manages to routinely rank amongst the best in the world, Business
Insider previously reported.

In Finland, elementary-aged school kids take a 15-minute break every 45 minutes. With more
frequent breaks to move around and play, Finnish kids are thought to be able to keep better
focused on their work.

With one of the best education systems in the world, they may be on to something. Frequent
breaks in their routine may help them stay on task longer.

5. More time traveling the world

It has long been tradition in Great Britain and other countries outside the US to take a
"gap year" between high school and college, according to Quartz. A 2017 statistic revealed that
in the UK, 230,000 students between 18 and 25 years old took a gap year to travel, work, and
volunteer.
6. Kids and adults Eating Patterns

Adults in Italy aren't the only ones sipping on a glass of red with dinner — their kids are,
too. According to a study by Boston University Medical Center, Italian children who were raised
with wine at dinnertime were less likely to develop "harmful drinking patterns" in
adulthood.Wine and the responsible consumption of it is so important to Italians that it's included
in the primary school curriculum, where students start learning about their country's wine
culture at six years old, The Daily Mail reports.

And while Italian kids are raised to be responsible drinkers, French kids are raised to be
sophisticated eaters. French kids eat the same nutritious, balanced meals as adults, says
University of British Columbia Professor Karen Le Billon in her book, " French Kids Eat
Everything."

7-. Kids in Sweden Aren't Spanked

Sweden became the first country to ban spanking in 1979. That means that the first
generation of children who were never exposed to corporal punishment are now parents
themselves.
Since Sweden’s ban on corporal punishment, the list of countries that ban spanking children
continues to grow. Currently, 52 other countries prohibit parents from using physical
punishments on children.

8. All-hands-on-deck parenting
In many parts of Africa, the responsibility of raising a child lies with entire extended
families, but even non-relatives are happy to help out.

It isn't unusual for mothers to share breast milk with other people's children in The
Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya. Researchers have even discovered men
"breastfeeding" children among Central Africa's Aka Pygmy tribe, according to The Guardian.
9. Parents are paid by the government to…well, parent.

In Germany, parent get a monthly payment from the government called Kindergeld. The
amount is about 200 euros per month per child, depending on how many children a couple has.
The money is intended to help pay for diapers, food, toys, etc. Parents are paid the monthly
stipend until their children turn 18. If the child does not have a job at 18, the parents are paid
until they’re 21, and until age 25 if they are students.

10. Mothers in Bulgaria Receive 410 Days of Maternity Leave

Have you ever heard of taking 410 days of maternity leave from work after having a
child? In Bulgaria, that is what is offered to all new mothers.

Mothers are entitled to 90 percent of their regular pay before and after the birth of their child.
And after six months, the duration of the maternity leave can be transferred to the child’s father.