T ECNOLOGY AND Q UALITY C ONTROL C ENTER

LIQUID PENETRANT
TESTING

1. THEORY NOTES

2. INTERPRATATION OF
INDICATIONS

Written by: Μ.Κ.Κotouzas

Volos, November 1999

TECNOLOGY AND QUALITY CONTROL CENTER

LIQUID PENETRANT
TESTING

THEORY NOTES

Written by: Μ.Κ.Κotouzas

Volos, November 1999

 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD

1. Historical Background of the Method

The Liquid Penetrant Testing method (also called Dye Penetrant Testing) originates
from the Oil and Whiting method, which was used for the detection of large cracks in
the American railway industry in 1890.

The modern method is based on the work of De Forest and R. Switzer of Magnaflux
Corporation (1938).The first commercial use of the technique was made in July of
1942 with the fluorescent water-washable technique, and was known to the public as
Zyglo.

2. The Capillary Phenomenon

The Liquid Penetrant Testing method is based on the capillary phenomenon, which is
explained below:

If a tube is being sank in a fluid, then possibly the level of the fluid inside the tube
will rise above the level of the fluid outside the tube (positive capillary) or it will
descend below it (negative capillary). Examples of positive capillary can be found in
everyday life, such as natural and artificial sponges, cotton clothes which absorb
sweat, as well as the circulation of fluids in plants and trees.

The capillary action (capillarity) is depending on:

a. The surface tension of the liquid-penetrant. Liquids with low surface tension are
considered to generate higher capillary action, even if in reality it is more
complicate.

b. The contact angle of the liquid. Liquids with low contact angle tend to generate
higher capillary action. The contact angle determines the wetting ability of the
fluid, which means the ability of the fluid to spread on a surface.

Even if contact angle lower than 90˚ means positive capillarity, the modern penetrants
have contact angle lower than 5˚,so practically the phenomenon is depending on the
surface tension of the penetrant.

c. The diameter of the tube. Small tube diameter results in high capillary action.

The pressure of the capillary phenomenon can be calculated with the following
formula:

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P=2×S×cosθ/W
Where S is the surface tension of the liquid penetrant, θ is the contact angle and W is
the thickness of the discontinuity.

Note: Surface tension S is measured in Newton divided by meters.

[P]= ([F]) ⁄ ([L])

The cleanness of the interior of the tube, the surface roughness, as well as high
adhesion between the penetrant and the tube play an important role in this
phenomenon.

d. The viscosity of the penetrant affects only the speed of penetration. Low viscosity
means thin fluid and results in high speed of penetration. The penetrants which are
used today have viscosity lower than 5 centistokes (in 20˚C temperature).

However, extremely low viscosity means excessive washout of the penetrant that
entered the discontinuity, in the stage of the excess penetrant removal.

Generally, a combination of many properties is required for a good penetrant, such as

low cohesion between the particles of the liquid, high adhesion between the particles
of the liquid and the component, high flash point, chemical inertness with the material
of the component, low volatility, low specific weight of the liquid (so that it does not
stagnate at the bottom of the tube), high dye solubility, non-toxicity and others.

3. Blotting action and Developer

The capillary effect, in the case Dye Penetrant testing when surface discontinuities are
detected, is reversible. Many penetrants (especially if they fill all the area of the
discontinuity) tend to move towards the surface. This phenomenon is known as
blotting action and is reinforced form the application of the developer, which
generates higher capillary action.

The best developers are always (in their final form) layers of light and fluffy powder.

It is strongly recommended that a developer should always be used, in order to ensure

the correct blotting action of the penetrant.

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4. Nature of the Method

The penetrant is a mixture of penetrant liquid and dye (either visible or fluorescent). It
enters a discontinuity, due to the capillary effect, when the discontinuity is open to the
surface and relatively clean inside.

After the needed penetration time has passed, the capillary effect in the opposite
direction takes place and the mixture of the penetrant with the dye comes up to the
surface of the material.

By using the appropriate contrast ratio (e.g. either white background and visible dye or
dark environment and fluorescent dye) a visible indication which represents the
discontinuity is formed.

5. Steps of the Method

1. Pre-cleaning of the surface-Drying

2. Penetrant application-Penetration time

3. Removal of the excessive surface penetrant-Drying

4. Developer application-Drying-Blotting action

5. Observation of the indication-Recording

6. Post-cleaning of the surface

5.1 Pre-cleaning and Drying of the surface

The discontinuity always needs to be open to the surface, in order to ensure
penetration due to the capillary effect. Therefore, the component that is tested
needs to be clean from rust, and inorganic pollutants as well as from liquids (oil,
water or humidity.
Droplets of water/humidity can easily prevent penetration and for this reason, the
application of the developer is always performed in a dry surface.
The removal of organic pollutants is performed with the use of solvents/cleaners,
detergents or emulsifiers.
The most effective pre-cleaning method is vapor degreasing, where the solvent
steams dissolve the organic pollutants by entering even inside the surface

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discontinuities that might exist. The specimen needs to be placed within a zone of
cold air, over the basin of solvent, so that the vapors are humidified and, due to
gravity, return as liquefied drops at the basin, removing the dissolved organic
pollutants.
The removal of inorganic pollutants (rust, salts etc.) is done either mechanically or
chemically (chemical etching with a mixture of oxides or etching with alkaline
substances).Attention is needed when specific mechanical means are used (e.g.
sandblasting, grinding), because it is possible that the lips of the discontinuity will
close at the surface area (peening),especially if the material of the test piece is soft,
or simply that the discontinuity becomes filled with the cleaning products (by
sandblasting or grinding filings) .Similar pre-cleaning processes are either
prohibited from the specifications or are followed by chemical etching in order to
clean the lips of the discontinuity. However, all these actions reduce the sensitivity
of the method.
As surface contaminants any acidic materials (e.g. chromate, i.e. Chromium oxide)
are considered, because all the oxides tend to be harmful to the fluorescence of the
fluorescent penetrators.
Interestingly, good pre-cleaning (especially polishing with a thin emery paper and
chemical etching), can make many surface cracks visible, without any further
proceedings.

5.2 Penetrant Application-Penetration Time

In the P.T. method there are many adversities and only one „ally‟: the penetration
time.

The vast majority of the specifications sets only the lower limits (minimum
penetration time), usually between 10 and 30 minutes. If the discontinuity is
containing impurities (e.g. corrosion products at dynamodiavrosis discontinuities or
intergranular corrosion), the penetration time is extremely high according to
standards (at least 4 hours). In cases of fatigue cracks the recommended time is
more than 30 minutes.

Often there is the unfounded fear that the penetrator will "dry" inside the
discontinuity and the blotting action will not be. This is a big mistake, especially if
the ambient temperature is not too high or if the test piece was not left for several
hours under the hot sun. Almost all the penetrators are oil-based and contain a
mixture of liquids, including some not volatile at all or dried easily.

On the opposite, reduction of volatiles that are contained in the penetrator, results
in more dye concentration and hence stronger indication.

The basic problem in the case of consequently long penetration times (hours, not
minutes), is that it becomes more difficult to remove the excessive surface
penetrator (next stage of the method). It is sufficient to apply new penetrator at the

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surface of the test piece for 1-2 minutes, so this difficulty is eliminated.

The penetrants are applied in many ways, such as dipping, spraying or brushing.
We recommend that you avoid spraying (because it smears the surroundings) and
preferred application by brushing.

The most effective application method is by immersion of the test piece inside the
penetrator and 'draining (dip and drain method), where the specimen is immersed
for a while in penetrator bath and then placed on a rack to" drain ". This helps to
remove the more volatile substances, thus increasing the percentage of dye of the
penetrator and leads to the appearance of more strong indications. The temperature
of the sample during the application of the penetrator and afterwards must not
exceed 500 ˚C.

The position of the specimen plays no role whatsoever, since the pressure of the
capillary action is higher than one atmosphere (10 m of water) and the gravity does
not play any role in penetration (except maybe to produce unwanted false
indications).

The dyes which are contained in the penetrator are either visible (usually red) or
fluorescent (yellow-green, under black light).There are dual-sensitivity dyes, red in
the visible and yellow-orange under black light, but with clearly less sensitivity
than the fluorescent.

The temperature of the specimen during the time of penetration should be between
100 C and 500 C. Lower temperatures result in very significant increase of
penetration time (approximately double for each -100 C). Minor heating of the
specimen before the application of the penetrator, helps the penetration because it
slightly opens the lips of the discontinuity, relaxes contaminants of the inner
surface and removes moisture and any volatile contaminants. However, the
opposite, the use of heated penetrator, is not recommended.

Specific category of penetrators are those who are not oily based, but water or
alcohol based and are used for specific applications (e.g. in case of a leakage
testing with P.T. or inspecting plastic materials).

Caution is needed for amounts of Sulphur (S), halogens (CI, F) and alkaline
substances that are contained in the penetrator (as well as all fluids that come in
contact with the specimen, such pre-cleaning and post-cleaning fluids, emulsifiers
and developers) .

Aluminum alloys can develop corrosion (especially pitting), upon coming in

(continuous) contact with alkalis, whilst some alloys (austenitic stainless steels,
nickel, titanium, etc.) develop corrosion when they come in (continuous) contact
with sulfur and halogens.

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5.3 Removal of the Excess Surface Penetrant-Drying.

When the penetration time is completed, the process of removing the excess
surface penetrant begins.

As mentioned before, the vast majority of penetrators are oil-based and therefore
their removal is performed either with solvents or with detergents (emulsifiers or
soaps).

The soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids and are not used in the P.T. method. The
emulsifiers (as well as soaps) are substances with a portion of their molecule oil
solvent and the other portion water washable. Thus, the oils / fats are dissolved in
the suitable portion of the molecule, while the remaining portion is dissolved with
water, hence "rinsing" with water we remove and the oil / surface penetrators.

After the removal of excess penetrant the next step involves drying of the surface,
because the developer needs to be applied to dry surface (except for the
combination of liquid aqueous developer and water washable penetrator).

Generally, in terms of removing the excess surface penetrant, there are three
methods: Removal with solvent, removal with water and removal with post-
emulsifier.

5.3.1 Solvent Removable Penetrants

The surface is cleaned either with dry and clean rags or paper (lint-free) and
then by using rags / paper slightly moistened with solvent. Wiping with
pressure is used (in one direction always, for easier removal) until no trace of
penetrator is appearing on the cloth / paper. For fluorescent penetrants, this
procedure is performed in a darkroom under black light lamp.
Generally, spraying solvent directly on the surface is prohibited, because it
reduces the efficiency of the method, removing the penetrator from the lips of
the discontinuity and preventing the blotting action, in the next step.
Drying is performed in ambient air environment and is assisted with a slight
blow or with a stream of hot air.
5.3.2 Water Washable Penetrants
When emulsifier has been added from the manufacturer to the oily mixture of
penetrant, then this is the case of water washable penetrant. The removal is
performed with a stream of water with relatively not high pressure (2 to 3
bars), with an angle to the surface and at distance more than 30 cm from the
water source. The water temperature is recommended to be between 150 C
and 300 C. The removal of the fluorescent penetrator is performed in an
appropriate dark chamber and a under black light source.
The next necessary step is the drying of the specimen, which is performed
either with a stream of hot air or inside an oven (temperature according to the

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 specification that is used and preferably with a stream of hot air). Generally it
is suggested that the surface temperature of the specimen does not exceed
500 C and the drying time should not exceed 10 minutes.
In the case of water washable penetrant and liquid aqueous developer, the
drying process is not performed before the application of the developer, but
after it.

5.3.3 Post-Emulsifier Penetrants

This is the most modern P.T. method, which was developed because of the
need of detection of surface discontinuities with wide lips or extremely
shallow (such as fatigue cracks during their beginning). Usually this process
is combined with fluorescent penetrator rather than visible.

Emulsifiers are divided into two categories: Lipophilic and Hydrophilic.

The lipophilic do not tolerate water more than 5% and become active by
diffusing inside the surface penetrator and are applied either by immersion or
spraying (for a very short time, 0.5 to 3 minutes). The application time of the
lipophilic emulsifier is extremely critical and the optimum time can be found
only through experimenting. The emulsifiers have light orange fluorescence
under black light, in order to be distinguished from penetrators.

Hydrophilic emulsifiers act as surfactants or detergents, tolerate unlimited

amount of water and are applied (by dipping or spraying) for a longer time
(5-20 minutes). The optimal time is again found by experimenting, but is not
as critical as in the case of lipophilic emulsifiers. Today, because of the many
advantages of hydrophilic emulsifiers, they are used almost exclusively in the
industry, often by spraying with large amounts of water (scrubber).

After the application of the emulsifier, the excess penetrator is removed with
a stream of water, similar to the case of water washable penetrator, and
drying of the specimen follows.

5.4 Developer Application-Drying-Blotting Action

Once the sample has been dried, the blotting action possibly starts automatically
and the first indications are beginning to appear (especially in the case of
fluorescent penetrants). Often, even before the application of the developer, even
with heating the specimen, the sufficient blotting action is generated.

However, it is always necessary to apply developer, in order to control the blotting

action for the following reasons:

a. The developer retrieves to the surface of the specimen a large part of the
penetrant that is inside the discontinuity, through the inverse capillary action effect.

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b. It “spreads” the discontinuity, making it wider and more easily visible.

c. It increases the light intensity of the indication (in fluorescent penetrants), due
to the multiple layers of powder that it provides.

d. It offers color contrast (in visible penetrants).

e. If the developer contains solvent, it reinforces the blotting action even more
(case of liquid aqueous developer and plastic film). Due to the decrease of the
viscosity and the increase of the penetrator‟s volume that comes in contact with the
solvent, automatic blotting action occurs.

The developers can be dry powders, aqueous liquid (solution in water), non-
aqueous liquid (solution in solvent) and plastic film type. The solid part of the
developer initially used to be either chalk or talc powder, however today it consists
of several ingredients, among which are some specific amorphous silicate salts.

Dry developers have proved to be less sensitive, but tend to be very useful when
rough surfaces are inspected (molded or threaded parts), where liquid developers
tend to “stagnate”. Liquid aqueous developers are rarely used, since they have been
replaced from non-aqueous developers. The liquid non-aqueous developers (normal
sprays) offer higher sensitivity, (due to the extra blotting action from the solvent)
and are applied always with sprays, after they are have been properly stirred.

When liquid non-aqueous developer is used, it is recommended that it is applied as

successive thin layers (leaving enough time for the previous layer to dry). Spraying
needs to be applied from a distance (at least 30 cm) and after the sample has cooled
down enough. In the case of liquid aqueous developers, drying of the specimen
follows, while for non-aqueous liquid developers waiting for a short period, or
slightly blowing or even drying with a slight stream of hot air is sufficient.

During the past, it was suggested that the needed time for the developer should be
about half of the penetration time. However, nowadays half to one minute is
adequate for providing a satisfactory appearance of the indications, and rarely more
time is required.

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5.5 Observation of Indications-Recording

In the case of large discontinuities or long penetration time, the indications tend to
appear really fast, but spoil quickly as well due to “spreading”. A good technique is
to immediately sweep the first layer of dried developer and apply the second. This
procedure can be repeated for several times, until indications that perfectly
represent the discontinuity appear (especially if we suspect that the indications are
false or irrelevant). Caution is needed in case of small/shallow discontinuities in
order not to remove the indications completely.

In order to estimate the length/volume of the discontinuity, another technique

involves the application of successive layers, without wiping the previous one.
Large discontinuities will continue to appear, while small will disappear (as well as
false or irrelevant).

The observation of the indications needs to be performed immediately, after the

drying of the developer. No additional layer should be placed, if the indications
have not appeared in the previous one.

Recording of the observations can be achieved with the following ways:

a. With an appropriate plan/sketch. The position and the dimensions of the

indication are required, because these two factors will determine the acceptance or
rejection of the specimen, based on the acceptance-rejection criteria that the
Standard that is used determines.

b. With a photograph (either color or black and white).Specific technique and

film are required, especially for fluorescent penetrants.

c. The use of plastic film developer. It offers excellent blotting action properties
due to the solvent that it contains. In addition, it does not allow the diffusion of the
indication on the surface of the specimen, thus generating a razor sharp image of
the discontinuity. It can simply be used as high performance-sensitivity developer,
or with a special technique it can create a solid film, which is detached from the
specimen, displaying the image of the discontinuity.

d. By spraying a specific “solidifier” on the indication and, afterwards detaching

it, using a transparent duct tape.

e. With other, highly special techniques, such as with the use of silicone for
internal threaded areas.

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 5.6 Post-Cleaningς

Basically, this step involves the same procedures with pre-cleaning, after we swipe or
rinse with either water or solvent the layer of the developer. Again vapor
degreasing is the most effective method, especially if the specimen is going to be
inspected again with the Penetrant Testing method.
It should be noted that if the inspection procedure is repeated, after post-cleaning of
course, it cannot give the same sensitivity as the first inspection, because inevitably
traces of penetrant will have remained inside the discontinuity. If we need repeated
inspection with high sensitivity, heating of the test piece is recommended (if it is
allowed by the manufacturer) inside a heating oven with temperature over 1000C,
preceded by very thorough pre-cleaning.

6. Interpretation of Indications
In the P.T. method, interpretation of indications has two stages:
a) The decision on whether the indication is true or false, relevant or irrelevant.
b) The correlation of the indication with the actual discontinuity (e.g. crack, pore,
surface lack of fusion etc.). For many acceptance-rejection standards, only specifying
the indication as linear or roundly shaped is enough, rather than determining exactly
the nature of the discontinuity. An indication can be considered linear, when one
dimension of the indication is three times bigger than the other.

6.1 False Indications

These indications are not related to the capillary effect. Substantially, they are
generated either from the existence of penetrator on the surface of the test piece, or
due to poor removal of the excessive penetrant. If the background of false
indications id strong (even locally), it can cover the true indications. In this case,
post-cleaning and repeating of the inspection from the beginning is required.

As it was previously noted, the first time of the inspection is more sensitive, when
it comes to P.T., because it is not possible to remove completely all the residuals of
the method, so the next penetration will not be as successful as the initial. For this
reason, false indications need to be avoided, by applying properly good pre-
cleaning and good removal of the excessive penetrant.

On the other hand, many times (especially for post-emulsifiers or fluorescent

penetrants) a very light background is needed, in order to ensure that the penetrant
has not been excessively removed (so that penetrant inside the discontinuity has not
been removed).

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 6.2 True Indications

These indications are caused due to the capillary effect and the blotting action of
the penetrant. They are divided into relevant and irrelevant

6.3 Irrelevant True Indications

These indications are deriving from known causes (e.g. threads, splines, sectional
changes etc.). They are not assessed, but they shouldn‟t be intense enough to cover
the relevant indications.

6.4 Relevant True Indications

These indications are deriving form unknown, unexpected cases of the capillary
effect (and blotting action), originating from discontinuities (imperfections) of the
test piece.

By applying the acceptance-rejection criteria of the specification that is used

(which will be provided by the customer or Level III personnel on behalf of the
client), the specimen could be accepted as it is, or rejected, where repairing and
inspecting again will be demanded.

The acceptance-rejection criteria that are applied are related to the use of the
specimen in the future, the loads it will receive, the environmental conditions in
which it will be installed, the criticality of the discontinuity for the specimen, the
importance of the specimen for the safety and the proper operation of the whole
mechanism and many others. Under no circumstances arbitrary assessments on the
part of the operator should be implements, and only following the acceptance-
rejection criteria of the specification that is used is acceptable. Moreover, it is
known that in this case “when the specifications speak, the smart remain
silent”.

7. Leakage Testing using P.T.

Leakage testing by using P.T. (leak through), is performed by applying penetrant on

one side and developer on the other. Usually it is applied to containers, pipes, hollow
parts of large castings etc. Specific dyes can be used, in the form of water washable
powder, usually fluorescent (in red or yellow color, under black light). Usually large
penetration time is required. Caution is required, regarding to the compatibility of the
P.T., not only relating to the materials that are tested, but regarding to the content of
substances that they will be carrying when they are applied as well

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8. Liquid Oxygen Systems Testing (LOX)

Materials and systems that will come in contact with Liquid Oxygen (LOX) need to be
inspected only with specifically approved P.T. equipment, due to the possibility of
explosion, when the liquid oxygen comes in contact with the residuals of the method.
The penetrant is aqueous based, containing few organic elements. In addition,
particular post-cleaning process is required.

9. Visible and Fluorescent Dyes

The dyes which are contained inside the penetrator can be either directly visible or
fluorescent under black light. In all cases, the ability of the eye to detect the existence
of a discontinuity is depending on the contrast ratio between the indication and the
existing background. In the case of white-black contrast (e.g. visible magnetic
particles) the contrast ration practically is equal to 9:1, while for red-white contrast
(e.g. typical visible penetrants) it is equal to 6:1. In the case of fluorescent penetrants,
the contrast ratio easily reaches values of 300:1 and 100:1 values are possible, while
in the case of fluorescent component-black background, it is infinite.
This is one of the reasons why the fluorescent penetrants method is considered more
sensitive than the visible P.T. method, simply because it increases the ability of
perceiving the indication.
Another reason is because, in plenty of light, the eye cannot distinguish small sources
of light. In the case of darkness this phenomenon is reversed. Due to the phenomenon
that is called halation, small sources of light in a dark environment appear to be bigger
than they actually are (thus more easily detected). Also, in the dark, the eye is
automatically driven to existing sources of light. Thus, the fluorescent dye is again
more “sensitive”, simply because it makes the indication more easily perceived.
Besides, the eye is capable of distinguishing brightness difference of 10-15%.
Generally, in light conditions the eye is able to see through cones, while in dark
conditions through rods, which are much more sensitive.

9.1 Observation of Visible P.T. Indications

Plenty of light is required, with an intensity of at least 350 lux (32,5 footcandles).
It needs to be noted that many specifications require much more intensive light
sources, equal to 1000 lux..

9.2 The black light

Visible light has wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm (4000 up to 7000
Angstrom). In smaller wavelengths (100 up to 400 nm) is the ultraviolet light.

The ultraviolet light is divided into three zones: UV-A (315-400 nm), UV-B (280-
315 nm) and UV-C (100-280 nm). The UV-A section is called „black light‟.

While the UV-B and UV-C parts are considered to be harmful to living tissues
and organisms, the black light is considered harmless, even with direct vision.

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9.3 Fluorescent Dyes

Fluorescence is called the phenomenon in which a material absorbs energy

(usually light) of one wavelength and simultaneously emits light of a different
wavelength (in the phosphorescence the emission continues after the absorption
as well).

The fluorescent dyes of P.T. absorb black light of 350-400 nm wavelength, with
maximum output at 365 nm, where is the maximum output of the filter of the
lamp. They emit light of 475-575 nm wavelength, yellow-green. This color, not
only has the advantage that it cannot to be confused with the natural fluorescent
color of organic substances (about blue), but it is extremely easily visible by the
human eye, even in small intensity, as well. In the case of very thin discontinuities
(e.g. fatigue cracks), where the yellow dyes cannot penetrate, the indication has a
green color (the relevant dye penetrates more easily).

In general, a mixture of dyes is used, others of which are activators (they absorb
black light emitting different wavelengths), and others provide the color that is
wanted (color forming, by absorbing the light of the activators as well and
emitting yellow-green color). The combination of these two dyes is called
cascading. If the observation is not performed with the eye, but with special
photomultipliers, it is possible that the desired emitted color can be different.

9.4. Observation of Fluorescent P.T. Indications

Generally, very low ambient lighting is recommended (10-32 lux, depending on

the specification that is used). Absolute darkness conditions, although desirable in
terms of the inspection, need to be avoided for safety reasons.

The intensity of the black light on the test piece needs to be checked. The
specifications demand intensity of 800μW/cm2 at least (typically1000), usually
1500 and sometimes 3000μW/cm2.

It is recommended that the operator should stay at least 5 minutes in the

darkroom, before the beginning of the inspection, in order to allow the eyes to
adapt to conditions of darkness. White clothes (especially shirts) need to be
avoided, because usually the detergents contain fluorescent dyes mainly blue.

If we look directly to the black light lamp, we may see bright signs, or our eyes
might appear “bright” to others (due to fluorescent substances inside the eye).
This phenomenon is harmless and temporary, but it can cause confusion and
foggy vision to the operator.

It is really important that the test-piece should not be contaminated with visible
penetrant, because then the fluorescent penetrant loses the fluorescent ability.

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During the observation, we must always keep in mind that indication is not only
what is visible, but everything that gives us the impression that it is radiating.
Also, it needs to be noted that the Fluorescent Penetrant Testing method is
requiring not only proper removal of the surface penetrant (in a darkroom under
black light), but minimum layer of developer (otherwise a very strong fluorescent
background will exist). A good technique involves applying a thin layer of
developer, swiping the component with a clean cloth/paper (always towards one
direction and applying powerful pressure) and afterwards placing the lamp close
to the test-piece and observing (the emitted heat reinforces the blotting action).

It needs to be noted that fluorescent penetrants, should not be placed inside

transparent containers, exposed to the sunlight, because then the penetrant loses
the fluorescence ability. Similarly, they should not be placed close to sources of
heat and of course they should not be contaminated with visible penetrants, dyes
or acid substances.

9.5 Black Light Lamps

Black light lamps can be incandescent, solenoid (like fluorescent lamps) or Vapor
Mercury lamps. The first two categories can generate only small intensity and can
be used only auxiliary, or many of them used together simultaneously. It needs to
be noted that the typical incandescent lamps should be placed horizontally and not
vertically, because they emit from their side. These also have a particular way of
initiating, which means that turning of the lamp (on purpose or due to heating)
results in waiting for a few minutes, in order to restore the light.

The most widely used black light lamps are the Vapor Mercury. They generate
ultraviolet as well as visible light, with a range of 300-670 nm wavelength, with
maximum output at 365 nm. However, the filter that they carry absorbs the small
wavelengths, as well as most of the visible, and allows only wavelengths with a
range of 300-400 nm (the black light and minimum visible ultraviolet).

For safety reasons, the filter needs to be checked regularly for possible scratches
and certainly should not be used if it is cracked or broken. For performance
reasons, the filter needs to be cleaned regularly from dusts and other
contaminants, especially from traces of developer.

The maximum intensity of radiation that passes through the filter is at 365
nanometers, where the maximum light intensity is, as well as the trigger point for
fluorescent dyes.

The mercury arc is generated between two electrodes which are placed inside a
crystalline capsule filled with neon gas, and there an auxiliary electrode is used
for the ignition of the arc, through heating and vaporization of mercury. The
auxiliary electrode is supplied with current via electrical resistance.

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The whole system is powered by a transformer, in order to limit the intensity of
current of the basic electrodes.

The capsule that is containing the three electrodes that were mentioned above is
positioned inside glass housing. The front housing part has an appropriate
convexity, enabling the light of the lamp to focus.

Selection of the emitted spectrum is mainly performed by pressure adjustment

from the manufacturer at the internal crystal capsule. High pressure (100 atm)
provides continuous spectrum, while medium pressure (1-10 atm) provides
correct spectrum of light, ultraviolet and mainly black light. For this reason, the
most widely used lamps are those with medium pressure (typically 10 atm). The
most widely used Vapor Mercury lamps are usually Spot type, 100 Watt.

If it is overheated, then the lamp turns off (so the removing the filter and cleaning
the lamp as well as the filter is recommended). Each turning off of the lamp
(either on purpose or due to overheating), has severe consequences on the life
expectancy of the lamp, because for every ignition part of the electrodes is
consumed. In addition, the use of high voltage can significantly reduce the life
expectancy of the lamp. Low voltage can result in turning off the lamp.

A lamp, from the moment it is turned on, needs at least five minutes to reach
maximum performance. If it is turned off, it needs at least 10 minutes in order to
reach full performance again. This is one more reason why we do not turn off the
lamp, only at the end of the inspection.

Recently, black light lamps that can reach their maximum efficiency rapidly after
being turned on became available on the market, even if they had just been turned
off.

15
10. Categorization of methods

10.1 According to MIL-I-25135

Group I - Visible Solvent removable

Group IΙ –Visible Post-emulsifying
Group IΙΙ - Visible Solvent-removable
Group IV – Fluorescent Water-washable (low sensitivity)
All the above have approximately the same sensitivity and the only difference is the
developer and the proper technique.

Group V –Fluorescent Post-Emulsifying (medium sensitivity)

Group VI – Fluorescent Post-Emulsifying (high sensitivity)
Group VII – Fluorescent Solvent Removable (high sensitivity) and liquid non
aqueous developer (kit)
It needs to be noted again that proper technique and the use of more sensitive
developer can significantly improve the methods.

10.2 According to MIL-I-6866

Type Ι - Fluorescent
Method Α – Water washable (Group IV)
Β – Post-emulsifying (Group V and VI)
C – Solvent removable (Group VII)

Type ΙΙ - Visible
Method Α - Water washable (Group III)
Β – Post-emulsifying (Group II)
C - Solvent removable (Group I)

16
10.3 According to ASTM E-165 edition 1991

(Same as ASME V, article 24, SE-165 edition 1991)

Method Α: Fluorescent
Τύπος 1 : Υδαηοαθαιρούμενα (Α-1)
2: Post-emulsifying (Α-2)
3: Solvent removable (Α-3)

Method Β: Visible
Τύπος 1 : Water washable (Β-1)
2: Post-emulsifying (Β-2)
3: Solvent removable (Β-3)

10.4 According to ASTM E-165 edition 1995

(Same as ASME V, article 24, SE-165 edition 1995)

Type Ι - Fluorescent
Method Α - Water washable (Ε 1209)
Β – Post-emulsifying lipophilic (Ε1208)
C - Solvent removable (Ε1219)
D – Post-emulsifying hydrophilic (Ε1210)

Type ΙΙ - Visible
Method Α – Water washable (Ε1418)
C – Solvent removable (Ε 1220)

17
11. Selection of the Optimum Method

Selection of the optimum method for each case requires significant experience on the
particular specimens of the producer (and therefore knowledge of the defects that they
possibly will have). Therefore, the following have value only as recommendations,
and cannot be considered as absolute rules, in order to provide the highest possible
sensitivity.

 Castings: Fluorescent water washable and dry developer (for high precision
castings post-emulsifying penetrant with high sensitivity and dry developer).

 Welds: Visible solvent removable and liquid non-aqueous developer (either

fluorescent water washable).

 Forgings: Post-emulsifier with medium or high sensitivity and dry developer.

 Non rotating machine parts: Fluorescent post emulsifying with medium or high
sensitivity and dry developer.

 Rotating machine parts: Fluorescent post emulsifying penetrant with high

sensitivity, liquid non-aqueous developer and extremely large penetration times.

 Aircraft material: Fluorescent solvent removable with high sensitivity, liquid non
aqueous developer and extremely large penetration times.

 Stress Corrosion Cracking- SCC: Same as previously.

 Components which have undergone heat treating: Fluorescent water washable

with low sensitivity and dry developer.

 Plastics: Visible water washable (caution to the impact to the plastic, testing needs
to be performed before application)

 Glass: Fluorescent and dry developer or visible and liquid non-aqueous developer.
Especially for porcelain or enamel glasses nonconductive materials, a specific
method has been developed, known as Electrified Particle Testing.

 Porous materials: (e.g. ceramics or sanitary wave before they are made porcelain):
The P.T. methods cannot be applied, due to the background, which generates

18
 many irrelevant indications. The Filtered Particle Testing method has been
developed.

12. Appearance of Discontinuities

Often it is sufficient to interpret a discontinuity as linear 9one dimension three times

larger than the other) or roundish. However, it is useful to mention the main
discontinuities of materials and the images that they generate with the P.T. method.

 Heat and grinding cracks: Linear indications often branched.

 Dynamodiavrosis (SCC): Small, thin, very sharp and often jagged lines. Usually
many together and often beginning from a pitting point. In fluorescent penetrants,
they may have the form of light blue instead of green-yellow color.

 Cold shut in castings: Straight or slightly curved "smooth" lines, continuous or

dashed.

 Forging Lap: Thin continuous (rarely dashed) lines.

 Cracks: Continuous (or rarely dashed) lines, often "jagged».

 Seams or Stringers: Continuous or dashed "smooth" lines (straight or very slightly

curved).

 Pores: Roundish strong indications separated from each other.

 Crater cracks in the welded area: Linear or roundish appearance (look for the
crater).

 Narrow cracks (e.g. fatigue cracks or dynamodiavrosis cracks): They may have the
appearance of white-blue instead of green-yellow (fluorescent penetrant).

19
13. Health and Safety

In the P.T. method, many chemicals are used including solvents and organic
substances (oils) as well as petroleum derivatives. Thus, all the general safety rules for
using apron and gloves need to be applied, good washing of dirty clothing and hands,
as well as use of protective glasses and mask (especially at the stage of applying the
developer).

Even though, all the materials that are used in the P.T. method have been checked for
toxicity, sometimes irritation of the skin can be caused and protective hand creams can
be very helpful.

In terms of safety, fire extinguishers in the workplace and good ventilation (natural or
artificial) are necessary. When black light is used, regular checking of the filter for
scratches is necessary. When electricity is used, the general safety rules are applied.

As in all workplaces, the use of safety shoes is needed. When operating at a

construction site, again the general safety rules need to be applied (protective helmet,
guide close to us etc.)

14. Test Blocks

The most common Quality Control of the materials of the method is with the use of
Test Blocks of various forms, materials and types.

Often the whole “system” is checked, but it is possible to check only a single factor
(penetrant, post-emulsifier, developer, penetration time etc.). Every specimen can be
used very few times and then requires continuous and not always successful treatment,
in order to be used again in the future.

The main Test Blocks that are used are shown below:

14.1 Aluminum Test Blocks

These are specimens made from aluminum 2024-T3 , with dimensions 50 x 57 x

8 mm.They are heated and cooled suddenly with a special process in order to
form surface heat cracks. They usually have a slot 1,5 x 1,5 mm in width, in order
to have two separate but similar surfaces, where the test/comparison of the
consumable and other factors of the process will be performed.

20
 14.2 Ceramic Test Blocks

These are flat circular discs of unglazed ceramic, bearing roundish discontinuities
of various dimensions. Penetrators are compared (without using developer) in two
different specimens, measuring-comparing emerging indications

14.3 Anodized/Chrome-plated Nickel Panels

These types of specimens are used to verify both the sensitivity of the penetrator,
as well as the washability of the surface penetrant (during the use of emulsifier).

Similar specimens are TAM panels, which have two separate chrome surfaces,
one smooth and one rough. In the smooth surface, the sensitivity of the penetrator
is checked-compared, and in the rough surface the washability of the emulsifiers
checked.

14.4 Other Test-Comparison Blocks

There are many different forms of testing or comparison blocks, such as:

 Aluminum sheets and steel plates, in order to check the washing factors of the
surface penetrant.

 Steel sheets, used for checking for any fluorescent capability loss, at high
temperatures.

 Specimens used for checking the wetting ability of the penetrant, the capability
of removing the excessive surface penetrant, the corrosion susceptibility of the
material to the substances used in P.T. method and many others.

21
15. Controlling the Materials of the Method

Depending on the specification that is used, certain tests of the physical properties of
materials of the P.T method are required, or simply a comparative testing (in which
case the Test Blocks that were mentioned above can be used).

15.1 Control of the Penetrant

The most common checks are concerning the presence of other substances inside
the penetrator and the water percentage that is contained. The sensitivity of the
penetrator and the washing ability are tested with appropriate Test Blocks. In
addition, for fluorescent penetrants, the fluorescent capability can be checked with
the use of photofluorometer, a testing which is called Meniscus Test.

Measurements of the specific gravity, viscosity, flash point and sulfur or halogens
content are usually made during the production of the materials (this includes the
other materials of the method).

15.2 Control of the Emulsifier

Apart from the sensitivity and the washability tests (which are performed with the
Test Blocks mentioned above), the contamination of the emulsifier (mainly with
penetrant) can be checked, as well as the percentage of water that it has. In the case
of hydrophilic emulsifier, the concentration is measured with a refractometer.

15.3 Control of Dry Developer

Usually it is checked only visually, for the presence of humidity, concentration and
other substances. They developer can also be checked under black light for any
contamination with fluorescent penetrant.

15.4 Liquid Developer

It is checked mainly for contamination with other substances, as well as any

contamination with fluorescent penetrant.

For liquid aqueous, the specific gravity is checked with the use of a hydrometer.

22
16. Advantages and Limitations of the Method

The P.T. method offers several advantages over other NDT methods such as:

 It requires a relatively easy and simple technique, if some important rules are
followed.

 It does not require complex or expensive equipment.

 It can easily be applicable to construction sites (especially by using visible water

washable or solvent removable penetrants).

 It does not require the use of electrical power supply (in the case of visible
penetrants and adequate ambient lighting).

 It is a relatively fast and not tiring inspection method.

 It is an inexpensive technique.

 It does not generate any particular risks in health and safety.

 It can be used both in conductive and non-conductive materials, ferromagnetic or

non-ferromagnetic.\The are no particular restriction in the size, shape or geometry
of the component that is tested.

 Interpretation of the indications is very simple.

 It can detect simultaneously discontinuities with different orientation.

 It does not require calibration of the equipment.

However, it has significant limitations, such as:

 It cannot be used in naturally porous materials (e.g. anodized surfaces, some

aluminum castings, etc.) or over color coating.

 It can detect only discontinuities open to the surface and relatively clean in ht
interior.

23
 The sensitivity of the method is depending on many factors, sometimes not
known, such as the nature and the cleanness of the interior of the discontinuity

 It is a method that can easily lose its sensitivity, if the necessary steps are not
strictly followed especially the proper pre-cleaning and the adequate penetration
time. In that case, the applicability of the method turns into a disadvantage,
because everyone believes that he can apply it, without proper training and
experience that is necessary.

 .it is not completely free of health/hygiene risks, primarily due to the use of
organic substances (particularly in the case of liquid non-aqueous developer).

 In general, it is less sensitive than the Magnetic Particles Testing method, as well
as from the Eddy Current Testing method.

 I typical applications, it does not automatically produces a permanent record of the

indication.

 It uses materials that may be harmful to the component that is inspected, even with
the residues of the method.

 A fully automated technique has not been developed yet (e.g. with the use of
Personal Computers) and is mainly based on constant human supervision.

 Every time that the component is tested again, the method is has significantly
lower sensitivity than the previous test, or requires difficult and not certainly
successful post-cleaning techniques. This means basically, that the operator has
only one good “opportunity‟, the initial inspection.

 Testing again with fluorescent P.T. in parts that have been previously tested with
fluorescents is not recommended. Thus, it is not possible to inspect a component
firstly with a low sensitivity technique (visible P.T.), and, if there are indications,
with a higher sensitivity technique (fluorescent P.T.). In addition, for components
that have been tested at various times, it needs to be recorder whether they have
been tested with visible or fluorescent P.T.

24
Image 1: Appearance of the Capillary Effect

25
 Elevation of the level of the liquid inside the tube

Capillary tube

Liquid

Adhesion is greater than cohesion

Image 2α: Narrow tube inside water

Positive Capillary

Descend of the level of the liquid inside the tube

Capillary tube

Liquid

Adhesion is less than cohesion

Image 2b: Narrow tube inside mercury

Negative Capillary

26
 Εικόνα 3: Contact Angle of two different liquids

3α. Contact angle < 900

High wetting ability

Drop

Surface

Contact angle θ

3b. Contact angle > 900

Low wetting ability

Drop

Contact angle θ

Surface

27
 Βήμα 1 Βήμα 2 Βήμα 3

Βήμα 4 Βήμα 5 Βήμα 6

Image 4: General Steps of the method

1. Pre-cleaning

2. Penetrant application

3. Removal of excessive surface penetrant

4. Developer application

5. Blotting action-Observation of indications

6. Post-cleaning

28
Image 5: Typical small Fluorescent Post-emulsifying P.T. station

Image 6: Typical medium Fluorescent P.T. station

29
 α. Penetrant application β. Emulsifier application

γ. Emulsifying action δ. Removal with water

ε. Developer application and ζη. Observation of indications

blotting action (Under visible or black light)

Image 7: Steps of the Post-emulsifying method

30
 Indication

TRUE FALSE

(Due to not correct application of the method)

Cleaning

Relevant Irrelevant Re-testing

Due to unknown discontinuity Due to the geometry or known
discontinuities

Application of the
specifications

Either
Suitability for use

Accepted Rejected

Non-acceptable discontinuity

Defect

Repair

Re-testing

Image 8: interpretation and Evaluation of Indications

31
 Image 9 9: Typical portable Black Light Lamp

Image 10: Vapor Mercury Lamp

Ε1, Ε2 : Basic Electrodes

ΕS : Auxiliary starting electrode
Q : Crystalline housing
R : Resistor
B : Glass cover

32
1000

Image 11: The spectrum of ultraviolet and visible light

Image 12: Output of black light lam filter

(Wavelengths in Angstroms)

33
Image 13: Leakage testing with P.T.

Image 14: Aluminum Test Block

34
 TABLE 1Α

The Water-Washable Method

Visible and Fluorescent penetrants

Pre-cleaning


Penetrant
Application


Washing
With water

Drying

Developer
Application

Inspection

Post-cleaning

35
 TABLE 1Β

The Post-emulsifier Method

Visible and Fluorescent penetrants

Pre-cleaning


Penetrant
Application


Emulsifying action


Washing
With water

Drying

Developer
Application

Inspection

Post-cleaning

36
 ΠΙΝΑΚΑΣ 1Γ

The Solvent removable Method

Visible and Fluorescent penetrants

Pre-cleaning

Penetrant
Application

Removal (wiping)
With solvent

Drying (direct)

Developer Application

Inspection

Post-cleaning

37
 IMPORTANT WORDS

 Evaluation.

 Detergent.

 Discontinuity.

 Flaw.

 Shallow flaw.

 Solvent removable.

 Water removable.

 Dye.

 Emulsifier.

 Contact angle.

 Wetting ability.

 Solvent.

 Penetrant.

 Dual (purpose / sensitivity) penetrant.

 Defect.

 Developer.

 Indication.

 Blotting (απορρόθηζη).

38
 Surface tension.

 Interpretation.

 Sensitivity.

 Viscosity.

 Surface cleaning.

 Cleaner.

 Lipophilic (emulsifier).

 Black light.

 Post-emulsification.

 Post-cleaning.

 Non relevant (indication).

 Non aqueous (developer).

 Dry (developer).

 Visible (penetrant, dye).

 Adhesion (ζσνάθεια).

 Relevant (indication).

 Cohesion.

 Washing / rinsing technique.

 Capillary action.

39
 Wet (developer).

 Water - washable (penetrant).

 Aqueous (developer).

 Hydrophilic (emulsifier).

 Ultraviolet light.

 Fluorescent (penetrant).

 Dwell time (penetrant time, contact time).

 Emulsification time.

 False (indication).

40
 SPECIFICATIONS
1. BS 3683: Part 1 - Glossary of terms used in NDT-Penetrant Flaw Detection, BSI,
1985

2. BS 4489: Method for Measurement of UV-A Radiation, BSI, 1984

3. BS 6443: Penetrant Flaw Detection, BSI, 1984 (απεζύρθη, με ηην έκδοζη ηοσ
EN571-1)

4. EN 571-1: Non-Destructive Testing, Penetrant Testing, Part 1: General Principles,

1997

5. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Art. 24, Standard Test Method
for Liquid Penetrant Examination SE-165, 1995 (identical with ASTM
Specification ASTM E165-95)

6. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Art. 6, Liquid Penetrant
Examination, 1995 ed.

7. ASTM E433- 71 (Reapproved 1985): Standard Reference Photographs for Liquid

Penetrant Inspection, 1985

8. ASTM E1135 - 86: Standard Test Method for Comparing the Brightness of
Fluorescent Penetrants, 1986

9. ASTM E1208 - 91: Standard Test Method for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant
Examination Using the Lipophilic Post-Emulsification Process, 1991

10.ASTM E1209 - 91: Standard Test Method for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant
Examination Using the Water-Washable Process, 1991

11.ASTM E1210 - 91: Standard Test Method for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant
Examination Using the Hydrophilic Post-Emulsification Process, 1991

12.ASTM E1219 - 91: Standard Test Method for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant
Examination Using the Solvent-Removable Process, 1991

13.ASTM E1220 - 91: Standard Test Method for Visible Liquid Penetrant
Examination Using the Solvent-Removable Process, 1991

14.ASTM E1316 - 91b, Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations,

Section F, Liquid Penetrant Examination (E270), 1991

15.ASTM E1417 - 91: Practice for Liquid Penetrant Examination, 1991

16.ASTM E1418 - 91: Standard Test Method for Visible Penetrant Examination
Using the Water-Washable Process, 1991

41
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Analysis of Metallurgical Failures, V.J.Colangelo, Wiley & Sons, 2nd edition,

1987

2. ASNT Level II Study Guide - Liquid Penetrant Testing Method, ASNT, 1998

3. ASNT Level III Study Guide - Liquid Penetrant Testing Method, ASNT, 1980

4. ASNT Programmed Instruction Book - Liquid Penetrant Testing, PI-4-2, General

Dynamics, 1977

5. Basic Metallurgy for Non-Destructive Testing, edited by J.L.Taylor, British

Institute of Non-Destructive Testing, revision 1996

6. Fundamentals of Non-Destructive Testing, Lesson 1, Introduction to NDT, ASNT,

1977

7. Fundamentals of Non-Destructive Testing, Lesson 2, Liquid Penetrants, ASNT,

1977

8. Fundamentals of Non-Destructive Testing, Lesson 14, Interpretation and

Classification of Indications, C.J.Hellier, ASNT, 1977

9. Fundamentals of Non-Destructive Testing, Lesson 15, Standards and

Specifications, D.J.Hagemaier, ASNT, 1977

10. Liquid Penetrant Testing, Theory Notes, Lavender International NDT Ltd, ed.
1990

11. Materials and Processes for NDT Technology, ASNT, 1989

12. Non-Destructive Testing Handbook, edited by R.G.McMaster, The Ronald Press,

New York, 1959

13. Non-Destructive Testing Handbook, Volume 2, Liquid Penetrant Tests, 3rd

edition, ASNT, 1999

14. Non-Destructive Testing, R. Halmshaw, Ed. Arnold, 2nd edition, 1991

15. Nondestructive Testing: Liquid Penetrant, Classroom Training Handbook CT-6-2,

General Dynamics, 4th edition, 1977

16. Penetrant Testing - A Practical Guide, D.Lovejoy, Chapman & Hall, 1991

17. Principles of Penetrants, C.E.Betz, Magnaflux Corp., 2nd edition, 1986

42