CONTENTS

NOMENCLATURE......................................................................................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 7
SECTION 1 PURPOSE, VOLUME AND CONTENTS OF THE COURSE PROJECT .............. 8
1.1 Organization and planning of work............................................................................................ 9
1.2 Individual tasks of the course project......................................................................................... 9
SECTION 2 ENGINE CYCLE THERMODYNAMIC CALCULATION................................... 12
2.1 Instructions for the implementation of thermodynamic calculation of MICE cycle................ 12
2.1.1 Tasks of thermodynamic calculation of engine cycle ........................................................... 12
2.1.2 Description of the features of the prototype engine associated with the choice of parameters
for thermodynamic calculation....................................................................................................... 12
2.1.3 Selection and justification of the design features of the engine, as well as its geometrical
parameters ...................................................................................................................................... 12
2.1.4 Selection and justification of the initial data for the thermodynamic calculation of the engine
cycle ............................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Engine thermal (engine cycle) calculation ............................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Content and properties of fuel-air mixture and combustion products................................... 18
2.2.2 Air inlet process (Charging).................................................................................................. 20
2.2.3 Compression process............................................................................................................. 22
2.2.4 Combustion process .............................................................................................................. 23
2.2.5 Expansion process ................................................................................................................. 24
2.2.6 Exhaust process ..................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.7 Indicated parameters of the cycle.......................................................................................... 25
2.2.8 Effective parameters of the engine........................................................................................ 26
2.2.9 Specification of the main engine dimensions........................................................................ 27
2.3 Construction of the indicator diagram...................................................................................... 28
2.3.1 Construction of the four-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram .......................................... 28
2.3.2 Construction of the two-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram........................................... 30
2.4 Converting of indicator diagram from ɪV coordinates to ɪij................................................... 31
SECTION 3 KINEMATIC AND DYNAMIC CALCULATION OF MARINE INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES ........................................................................................................... 34
3.1 General guidelines for the calculation...................................................................................... 34
3.2 Crank mechanism cinematic .................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1 Kinematic analysis of the crank mechanism ......................................................................... 34
3.3 Dynamic calculation of an engine ............................................................................................ 37
SECTION 4 STRENGTH CALCULATION OF PISTON GROUP DETAILS OF MARINE
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES ...................................................................................... 42
4.1 Working conditions and materials for the manufacture of a piston group............................... 42
4.1.1 Piston..................................................................................................................................... 42
4.1.2 Piston rings............................................................................................................................ 42
4.1.3 Piston pins and cross head pins ............................................................................................. 43
4.2 Strength calculation of piston................................................................................................... 45
4.2.1 Designing dimensions and shape of pistons.......................................................................... 45
4.2.2 Strength calculation of piston................................................................................................ 48
4.3 Strength calculation of piston pin (cross head pin) .................................................................. 50
4.4. Strength calculation of piston rings......................................................................................... 53
SECTION 5 EXECUTION OF EXPLANATORY NOTE........................................................... 56
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE............................................................................................... 58
Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 59
$SSHQGL[Ⱥ([DPSOHRIWKHWLWOHSDJH .......................................................................................... 60
$SSHQGL[ȼ([DPSOHRIWKHFRXUVHSURMHFWWDVNSDJH .................................................................. 62
Appendix C Cross-section drawings of engines recommended as prototypes for designing ....... 65

5
 NOMENCLATURE

n – engine speed, rpm;

ge – specific fuel oil consumption, kg/(kWh);
gi – specific indicated fuel oil consumption, kg/(kWh);
Gɬ – absolute fuel oil consumption, kg/h;
Ne – effective power, kW;
N e cyl. – effective power of a cylinder, kW;
Ni – indicated power, kW;
p0 – ambient air pressure, ɆPɚ
pa – pressure at the beginning of operation, ɆPɚ;
pb – pressure at the end of expansion, ɆPɚ;
pc – compression pressure, ɆPɚ
pe – mean effective pressureɆPɚ
pi – mean indicated pressureɆPɚ
pk – air pressure after compressor, ɆPɚ;
pz – maximum combustion pressureɆPɚ
t’ ɤ , Ɍ’ ɤ – air temperature before cooler, °ɋ, K;
t0, Ɍ0 – ambient air temperature, °ɋ, K;
ta, Ta – gases temperature at the beginning of the cycle, °ɋ, K;
tr, Ɍr – exhaust gases temperature, °ɋ, K;
tz, Tz – gases temperature at the end of combustion, °ɋ, Ʉ;
tɜ, Tɜ – gases temperature at the end of the cycle, °ɋ, K;
tɤ, Ɍɤ – air temperature after cooler, °ɋ, K;
tɫ, Tɫ – gases temperature at the end of compression, °ɋ, K;
ǻɪǻij – velocity of increasing of gases pressure inside cylinder, ɆPɚ/°crankshaft
angle;
İ – geometrical compression ratio;
İ0 – actual compression ratio;
TDC – top dead center;
ME – main engine;
TC – turbocharger;
ICE – internal combustion engine;
ER – engine room;
BDC – bottom dead center;
MICE – marine internal combustion engine;
SEPS – ship electric power plant;
SPP – ship propulsion plant;
MDO – marine diesel oil;
HFO – heavy fuel oil;

6
 INTRODUCTION

In accordance with the Law of Ukraine “about higher education” approved by Order of Ministry
of Education and Science of Ukraine "Regulations on the organization of educational process in higher
education" envisaged individual tasks in the form of course work. Course work it is an independent
scientific and practical research of the student based on knowledge and skills acquired during the lectures
and practical classes, and performed under the supervision of an instructor. Coursework on the subject
“Marine internal combustion engines” is a mandatory part of the curriculum prepare foreign students of
the higher standard education bachelor’s degree, branch of knowledge 27 Transport, profession 271 River
and marine transport on specialty “Operation of ship power plant”.
The curriculum provides for the implementation of the course project in the 6th semester (3
course). The implementation of the course project is the final stage of training of cadets on the discipline
“Marine internal combustion engines” and has as its goal:
- systematization, consolidation and expansion of theoretical knowledge and practical skills in the
operation of marine internal combustion engines;
- development of skills of independent work with technical literature in the course of making
calculations;
- obtaining creative skills in the independent solution of technical problems;
- preparation for the degree design;
- consolidation and deepening of theoretical knowledge;
- learn to make engineering decisions.
During progress of the course project, the cadet should show the ability to use the theoretical
knowledge accumulated as a result of studying all previous disciplines to solve a specific task, and master
in a short time new sections within the discipline for designing devices and systems at the present level
the achievements of science and technology.
When executing the course project, the main tasks of the formation of the future specialist in the
operation of ship power plants should be untied, namely:
- study modern methods of engineering design;
- methods of design work in the development of a particular system;
- acquaintance with the modern element base for the development of an efficient system for the
operation of marine internal combustion engines.

7
 SECTION 1

PURPOSE, VOLUME AND CONTENTS OF THE COURSE PROJECT

Methodical recommendations for course project of four-and two-stroke marine internal combustion
engines are designed for foreign cadets who are educated on specialty “Operation of ship power
plants”.
The goal of the course project is to consolidate cadets' knowledge of the theory of MICE and to
impart future specialists in the field of marine transport operation, skills in applying the theory and
scientific analysis methods to solving practical problems associated with the calculation and effective
operation of power units of ship power plants.
For full-time cadets in the specialty “Operation of ship power plants”, the course project is the
basis for research work (R & D) and degree design (DD) performed in the department “Operation of
ship power plants and general engineering training”.
Corse project includes:
– the title page (appendix A);
– course project task page (1 page Ⱥ4, appendix B).;
– contents;
– introduction (1-2 pages Ⱥ4);
– analysis of the design features of the prototype engine (10…20 pages Ⱥ4);
– selection and substantiation of the design parameters of the engine considered in the project and
the initial data for performing thermal calculation (based on the task of obtaining a given power N e ,
kW, and specific fuel oil consumption g e , g/(kWh)) (10…20 pages Ⱥ4);
– thermodynamic calculation, analysis of the results obtained and drawing of the indicator diagram
(5…10 pages Ⱥ4);
– kinematic and dynamic calculation with the analysis of results (5…15 pages Ⱥ4);
– diagrams of the movement of the speed and acceleration of the piston, as well as diagrams of the
forces acting in the engine crank mechanism (1-2 pages A1 (millimeter paper or diagrams constructed
by computer graphics methods));
– strength calculation of the main elements of the engine crank mechanism (5…15 pages Ⱥ4);
– drawings of the longitudinal or cross section of the engine, taking into account the results of
calculations (1-2 pages Ⱥ1);
– references (7…10 sources).
The task for the course project includes both two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engines as the most
dynamically developing ship engines. In addition, the methodological manual describes the design
features of petroleum (gasoline) engines operating on the Otto cycle, used as the main for low-tonnage
vessels. Other types of internal combustion engines (dual-fuel, rotary-piston, etc.) are included in the
assignment only at the request of the student, with the obligatory agreement with the teacher. The
explanatory note of the thesis is executed on one side of a sheet of white paper of A4 format (210 ×
297 mm). in form 2 and 2a for DSTU 2.104:2006 with the help of computer software Microsoft Office
Word.
In the introduction it is necessary to give a brief overview of the current state of development of
ICE, serving as a prototype calculated. The review should reflect trends in the development of engine
construction, increase the technical level and durability of engines. In addition, the specific conditions
of operation of the ship systems which services the engine is intended should be specified; Bringing
the basic parameters and performance of the calculating engine.
In the first section it is necessary to analyze the design features of the engine adopted as a
prototype, here is also a description of the systems ensuring the operation of the engine, its main
characteristics and operation features. The first section ends with a special design assignment which is
selected in accordance with Table. 1.2.
In the second section of the explanatory note, it is need to justify (or explain) the choice:
 design parameters and factors of the internal combustion engine, providing a given power and
8
 fuel consumption;
 layout of the internal combustion engine;
 compression ratio İ;
 cylinder diameter and piston stroke ratio D/S;
 number of cylinders i;
 parameter values at key points of the cycle.
If the calculation and drawing of diagrams is carried out manually (as instructed by the teacher),
the accompanying note describes the methods of rounding the pV-diagram to approximate it to the
actual indicator diagram. According to the drew diagram, the mean indicated pressure of the cycle ɪ i, ,
MPa is determined, and its value is compared for control with the value obtained in the calculation.
In the third section, it is necessary to perform a kinematic and dynamic analysis of the crank
mechanism, to construct diagrams of displacement, speed and acceleration of the piston, as well as the
forces and moments applied to the axis of the piston pin (main joint) and the axis of the connected rod
journal of crank shaft. Diagrams based on the results of calculations are recommended to be performed
on millimeter paper or in computer graphic editors. For convenience, it is advisable to group similar
charts on A1 sheets. When machine calculation of kinematics and dynamics, charts should be printing
on sheets of A3-A4 format.
In the fourth section, calculations are performed for the strength of the main structural elements
of the engine being designed.

1.1 Organization and planning of work

At the introduction double period the cadets receives an individual task. Teacher help students
understand the content and scope of the course project assignment and recommends the literature
needed to complete it.
The course project executed and presented in the form of an explanatory note and a graphical
application is submitted to the teacher for verification.

1.2 Individual tasks of the course project

Baseline data for the implementations of the course project by cadets are shown in Table. 1.1. and
1.2. Cadets choose as a prototype engines, the parameters of which are given in Table 1.1. It is
recommended when choosing the option to be guided by the register book list number of the cadet in a
group or instructor’s recommendations.
Additional design assignment is determined by the sum of digits of the register book list number.
When determining the maximum power and engine speed, calculated values should be limited to three
significant digits after point.
Cadets, whose course project is connected with the early operated engine (during shipboard
training), after consultation with the instructor, can choose it as prototype.
The choice of the basic geometrical parameters of the engine being designed, such as: connecting
rod length, piston crown thickness, piston height, piston pin diameter, diameter of crankshaft journals,
etc., must be made taking into account similar parameters of the prototype engine. Appendix A shows
drawings of two- and four-stroke engines recommended as prototypes. Geometric parameters can be
read directly from the drawing with a reasonable degree of accuracy. If the scale of the drawing is not
known, but the diameter of the working cylinder is known, any geometric parameter can be calculated
by the formula:
X=x×(D/d)
where X is the required size;
x - the value of the desired size in the drawing;
D is the diameter of the working cylinder of the prototype engine;
d is the diameter of the working cylinder in the drawing.
All resulting dimensions are should rounded to the nearest 0.5 mm.

9
 Table 1.1 – Table of prototype engines

Maximum compression ratio,

Mean effective pressure,

Charging pressureɆPɚ
consumption, g/(kW×h)

Maximum combustion
Engine designation

Engine power, kW

Engine speed, rpm

Specific fuel oil

pressure, MPa
Task variant

MPa

MPa
1. MAN 8L48/60CRȼ 8400 500 2,650 181 0,360 12,8 18,25
2. MAN ɄɆɋ 57200 94 1,820 171 0,365 12,3 14,20
3. MAN 16V32/44 8192 720 2,550 175 0,360 13,2 23,00
4. Sulzer 6RTA 68T-ȼ 18420 95 1,960 169 0,360 14,00 14,50
5. WɚUWVLOɚ /ɋ 800 1000 2,460 190 0,300 14,70 18,50
6. MAN 60ɋ 25480 79 1,800 167 0,351 13,5 15,10
7. MAN 10L32/44 5120 720 2,550 175 0,360 13,2 23,00
8. MAN 6S50MC6 8815 127 1,800 171 0,362 12,3 14,20
9. :ɚUWVLOɚVASA 6R32 2250 750 2,170 191 0,240 10,2 14,28
10. MAN 60ɋ 5920 173 1,910 178 0,360 12,3 14,60
11. Sulzer 7RT-IOH[Ɍ 31640 80 2,000 167 0,360 13,0 14,50
12. Caterpillar 3516 1920 1600 2,200 205 0,355 12,7 15,40
13. MAN 6S26MC6 2400 250 1,850 179 0,380 15,2 17,10
14. 8NVD 4Ⱥ8 736 375 0,763 217 0,125 4,80 6,200
15. MAN 4L35MC6 2600 210 1,840 177 0,360 12,7 14,60
16. MAN 6L23/30 960 900 1,710 195 0,260 9,00 13,50
17. Sulzer RTA8ɋ 44550 102 1,830 171 0,320 11,3 13,60
18. :ɚUWsLOɚ /ɋ 8400 500 2,880 175 0,370 17,5 20,80
19. MAN 60ɋ7 5400 136 1,950 177 0,360 12,2 14,60
20. ɆɚɄɆ& 5400 500 2,440 177 0,380 16,9 18,60
21. 6XO]HU57ȺɌ 12750 102 1,900 170 0,360 13,80 15,50
22. Daihatsu 6DK28 1812 750 2,09 193 0,320 13,00 17,00
23. MAN /0ɋ-ɋ 18660 108 1,900 170 0,365 13,2 15,10
24. Paxman 16VP185 2610 1950 2,070 198 0,390 13,5 19,00
25. MAN 5L60MC-ɋ 11700 123 2,000 172 0,375 14,4 16,20
26. MAN 7L58/64 9800 428 2,320 175 0,365 12,5 15,80
27. Sulzer 6RT-flex 35 5220 168 2,100 176 0,360 15,00 16,00
28. MAN 5L27/38 1280 800 2,350 182 0,320 14,2 20,00
29. MAN 6S60MC-ɋ 13560 105 1,900 172 0,365 13,2 15,50
30. MAN 8L21/31 1720 1000 2,480 181 0,241 13,4 20,00
31. Sulzer 5RTA 72U 15400 99 1,830 171 0,320 13,20 14,30
32. MAN 7L16/24 770 1200 2,070 195 0,340 14,3 18,00
33. MAN 5S60MC6 10200 105 1,800 172 0,353 12,6 14,2
34. MAN Ʉ0ȿ-ɋ 37380 97 1,820 171 0,370 12,7 14,20
35. MAN 9L32/40 4320 750 2,380 182 0,320 14,0 19,00
36. MAN .0ɋ-ɋ 41130 104 1,800 171 0,360 12,6 14,20

10
 Continue of table 1.1

Maximum compression ratio,

Mean effective pressure,

Charging pressureɆPɚ
consumption, /(kW×h)

Maximum combustion
Engine designation

Engine power, kW

Engine speed, rpm

Specific fuel oil

pressure, MPa
Task variant

MPa

MPa
37. MAN Ʉ0&-ɋ 72240 104 1,920 171 0,375 13,2 15,2
38. :ɚUtsiOɚ 12W46C 11700 500 2,360 173 0,360 15,5 21,00
39. Sulzer 12RT-flex ɋ 68640 102 1,860 171 0,360 13,0 14,50
40. &DWHUSLOODUȼ 2830 750 2,390 206 0,290 12,5 17,50
41. MAN 7S70ME-C 22876 91 2,000 171 0,363 13,5 15,20
42. MTU 12V4000 1320 1800 1,640 198 0,230 9,50 12,00
43. MAN 60ɋ-C8 19620 91 2,000 171 0,363 13,5 15,20
44. ɆɚɄɆ-ɋ 4320 600 2,590 179 0,370 16,0 19,80
45. MAN 60ɋ 22480 91 1,800 171 0,352 12,5 14,20
46. Sulzer Z40 4416 600 1,820 212 0,211 8,30 12,80
47. Sulzer 6RTA 48T 8730 127 1,900 171 0,330 14,50 15,00
48. 6(073LHOVWLFNɊɋ-2 2576 600 1,550 205 0,227 8,00 12,15
49. MAN 5L42MC 4975 179 1,800 177 0,353 12,7 14,20
50. MAN 7S80ME-C7 27160 76 1,900 167 0,370 13,5 15,20
51. Skoda 6L275PN 388 480 0,767 224 0,134 3,500 6,200
52. MAN 10L80MC 36400 93 1,800 174 0,355 12,50 14,20
53. MAN 7S46MC-C7 9170 129 1,900 174 0,365 13,20 15,20
54. ɆɚɄɆɋ 1800 720 2,580 184 0,330 17,20 20,40
55. MAN 60ȿ-ɋ 11060 127 1,900 171 0,363 13,50 15,20
56. Yanmar 6N21AL-V 882 720 2,213 194 0,320 12,00 18,14
57. Sulzer 5RT-flex58T-ȼ 10900 105 1,950 170 0,361 13,80 15,50
58. MAN 60ȿ-ɋ 13560 105 1,900 170 0,366 13,50 15,20
59. MAN ɄɆɋ-ɋ 39710 104 1,800 171 0,362 12,50 14,20
60. MAN 7S65ME-C8 20090 95 2,000 169 0,375 14,30 16,20
61. MAN 6S80MC-ɋ 23280 76 1,900 167 0,354 13,20 15,20
62. MAN 9S90MC-C7 44010 76 1,900 167 0,353 13,20 15,20
63. 5S50Mɋ-ɋ 8300 127 2,000 170 0,375 14,40 16,20
64. +<81'$,ɇ 805 1000 2,530 191 0,320 14,50 18,70
Table 1.2 – Individual task of the course project

Sum of digits of the register book list number of

the cadet in a group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Need to increase of maximum engine effective
power relatively to engine power of the
prototype engine, % 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Need to increase of engine speed relatively to
nominal continue ratings engine speed of the
prototype engine, % 0 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5

11
 SECTION 2

ENGINE CYCLE THERMODYNAMIC CALCULATION

2.1 Instructions for the implementation of thermodynamic calculation of MICE cycle

2.1.1 Tasks of thermodynamic calculation of engine cycle

The tasks of thermodynamic calculation are:
 deepening and consolidation of knowledge gained by cadets in the study of the theoretical
foundations of the working cycle of the engine;
 the acquisition of the ability and skills to calculate the basic parameters and indicators of the
operating cycle and engine performance;
 mastering the techniques and methods of engineering analysis of the obtained calculated data,
establishing their connection with the operating modes and operating conditions;
 the acquisition of the skills and abilities of using a PC (when performing calculation on a PC) for
solving engineering problems;
 obtaining initial data for subsequent design.
Thermodynamic calculation is performed in the SI system. When calculating it is necessary to
ensure obtaining the required accuracy of calculated indicators and parameters, taking into account
their influence on the final results. In this regard, it is recommended in the explanatory note to
compare the values of the main calculated parameters with the parameters of the similar internal
combustion engines that serve as the prototype of the modernized one, and indicate the limits of their
changes.

2.1.2 Description of the features of the prototype engine associated with the choice of parameters
for thermodynamic calculation
Mathematical model of thermal calculation of the engine, performed by the method of prof.
V.I. Grinevetsky, it does not include constructive and regime parameters of the engine. Their influence
is taken into account in the values of the initial parameters and factors chosen for the thermal
calculation. Therefore, the analysis of the design and operational features of the prototype engine (with
its modernization) should precede the thermal calculation of the internal combustion engine.
The analysis should be brief, clear, indicating the initial parameters that this factor influences, and
an assessment of this influence.
For example: ǻ T - the degree of heating of the fresh charge at the inlet varies in diesel engines
with split mixing in the range of 0...+ 20 K. Thermal calculation of the engine is being performed, the
prototype of which is the 4 F8,5/11 engine. The ICE is planned to apply a forced (from the coolant)
charge heating at the inlet. With this in mind, it is advisable to choose ǻ T = 20 K, i.e. on the upper
limit.

2.1.3 Selection and justification of the design features of the engine, as well as its geometrical
parameters

Selection and justification of design and operational parameters

When choosing and justifying the magnitude of the initial parameters and factors of the internal
combustion engine, one should proceed from the main trends and directions of development of modern
ship engines.
The main tasks of the ship engine building are the following:
 increasing fuel efficiency;
 reducing oil consumption;
 using of alternative fuels;
 reducing of toxicity;
12
  increasing in liter and piston power;
 reducing in weight and dimensions.
Taking into account these and other tasks, the initial parameters of the engine under consideration
should be selected.
Engine type. On small-tonnage vessels used gasoline engines with spark ignition.
Gasoline engines – the most massive ICE used on small-tonnage vessels, yachts, boats. This is due
to their advantage over diesel engines in mass, speed and tugging performance, less noise and lower
manufacturing cost.
The use of two-stroke diesel engines as the main ones on large-tonnage vessels is explained by:
 high efficiency, which is associated with high efficiency of such engines;
 the possibility of obtaining large aggregate capacity (up to 100 MW);
 the ability to transfer power directly to the propeller, which greatly simplifies the design of the
transmission;
 the ability to work on low-grade fuels;
 a great durability.
The use of four-stroke diesel engines as the main ones on medium- and large-tonnage vessels, as
well as their use to drive the auxiliary units of the SPP, is explained by:
 higher fuel efficiency inherent in the working cycle, especially in partial modes, which ensures a
reduction in fuel operating costs by 25...40 % compared with other types of engines;
 lower fuel cost, which is primarily associated with the transfer of most modern medium-speed
engines to heavy fuel;
 gradual decrease of energy, overall and mass parameters of diesel engines due to their forcing at
the engine speed and the mean effective pressure by improving the gas exchange process, more
efficient use of air during mixing and combustion;
 less toxic exhaust gases;
 high service life of diesel engines;
 approximation of the cost of production of diesel engines and other types of engines;
 the ability to create multi-engine units for which the optimal combination of the number of
operating engines and their load depending on the given speed of the vessel can be chosen.
Compression ratio (İ). The compression ratio can be defined as the value obtained by dividing the
total cylinder volume (stroke or swept volume) by the volume of combustion chamber (clearance
volume). Compression ratio is generally between 12 and 19; however, it depends on the design of the
engine. Compression ratio outside this ratio would either prevent the engine from starting or lead to
other problems. Marine engines with smaller cylinders will have higher compression ratio.
In all types of engines, with an increase in the compression ratio, the heat utilization improves, and,
consequently, the indicated efficiency of the engine improves, which has a positive effect on their
performance. However, at the same time, at medium and maximum loads, the toxicity of exhaust gases
increases (the amount of hydrocarbons due to an increase in the volume of the wall layer during the
combustion process and the amount of nitrogen oxides due to an increase in the combustion
temperature). The load on the crank mechanism also increases, and in order to ensure the reliability of
the engine, it is necessary to increase the dimensions and weight of its main parts accordingly. As a
result, mechanical losses increase.
In four-stroke diesel engines, with an increase in the compression ratio, the temperature and
pressure in the period of the start of fuel injection increase, which leads to a “softer” engine operation.
Therefore, in multi-IXHO GLHVHO HQJLQHV İ   DQG KLJKHU. ,QFUHDVLQJ İ LV DOVR DGYLVDEOH WR improve
diesel starting. The indicated efficiency in the range of compression ratios İ ...19) used in diesel
engines varies slightly. $Q LQFUHDVH LQ WHPSHUDWXUH DW ODUJH İ OHDGV WR DQ LQFUHDVH LQ WKH FRQWHQW RI
nitrogen oxides in the combustion products.
Compression ratio (Theoretical or Geometrical) – this is the ratio of the total cylinder volume
(piston at BDC, beginning of the compression stroke) to the volume of combustion chamber (piston at
TDC, end of the compression stroke).
The theoretical compression ratio is
13
 VA VC  VS V
H 1 S
VC VC VC
Compression ratio is dimensionless quantity, which shows, how many compression chamber
volumes go in total cylinder volume, that is to say how many times air charge compresses inside
cylinder by means of piston movements from BDC to TDC.
In reality, compression beginning when, for a four-stroke engine the inlet and outlet valves and for
a two-stroke engine the scavenge ports and exhaust valve are closed.
This is called the effective compression ratio. The distance which the piston has traveled from
BDC to the beginning of the effective compression is indicated by ȥa.
The volume above the piston is then;
H effective (1 \ a ) u VS  VC
where ȥɚ = h a /S – a part of lost motion on gaseous exchange controls, after it closed beginning
compression inside cylinder.
h a – the height of upper edge of exhaust ports above piston crown when it stay at BDC or distance
which piston traveled from BDC to the moment of closing scavenging ports and exhaust valve.
Between theoretical and effective compression ratio exist next ratios:
H effective (H \ a ) / (1 \ a )
H H effective (1 \ a ) \ a
The effective compression ratio varies from approximately 6 to 20. In Otto-engines where the
compressed mixture is not self-igniting the compression ratio varies from 6 to 15. For diesel engines,
the compression ratio varies from 10 to 20. This is always the theoretical compression ratio, because
the effective compression ratio is difficult to determine. So, the effective compression ratio is always a
little bite lower than the theoretical compression ratio.
High epsilon increases friction losses. Increasing compression ratio improves the combustion
process. Increasing epsilon means higher max firing pressure, if not compensated with later injection
timing. Too low epsilon will lead to starting problems due to low compression temperature. Higher
epsilon means flatter combustion space which may harm the combustion.
When the diesel engine is turbocharged to obtain the maximum pressure of a cycle of p z
12.5...23 MPa permissible under the terms of durability of a crank mechanism, the theoretical
compression ratio is reduced to 9...16.
When calculating four-VWURNH HQJLQHV LW LV DVVXPHG WKDW İ effective  İ WKDW LV WKH WKHRUHWLFDO
compression ratio is equal to the geometric one.
Stroke/bore ratio – represents the main dimension of the engine. The value of this ratio largely
determines not only the power but also the weight and dimensions of the internal combustion engine.
With decreasing S / D:
 reducing dimensions of the engine height and increase in length;
 reducing mechanical losses and wear rate of parts by reducing the average piston speed;
 conditions of arrangement of valves are improved and prerequisites are created for increasing
their sizes;
 increases the rigidity of the crankshafts due to the possibility of increasing the diameters of the
main and connecting rod journals.
It is advisable to reduce the S/D ratio with increasing engine speed. This trend is observed for high-
speed four-stroke marine internal combustion engines, which in recent years have seen a decrease in
S/D from 1.4 to 1...1.1, with a proportional increase of the engine speed.
However, a significant increase in the diameter of the cylinder, and as a consequence, a decrease in
S / D leads to:
 increase the load on parts of the crank mechanism from the pressure of gases and inertia forces;
 reduce the height of the combustion chamber, which leads to deterioration of the conditions of
mixing.
Due to these reasons, for modern medium- and low-speed engines there is a tendency to increase
S/D from 2.16...2.67 to 2.83...3.82 and even to 4.8 due to an increase in the piston stroke. When
14
choosing this parameter, it is advisable to focus on its value in the prototype.
Number and arrangements of cylinders. With an increase in the number of cylinders while
maintaining a constant power of the internal combustion engine, the diameter of the cylinders
GHFUHDVHV7KLVDOORZV\RXWRLQFUHDVHİLQJDVROLQHHQJLQHVDQGWKHUHE\LPSURYHWKHHIILFLHQF\RILWV
work. Increasing the number of cylinders improves balance and increases the uniformity of the engine.
In diesel engines with an excessive decrease in the diameter of the cylinder, structural difficulties arise
with the provision of directional movement of the air charge in the cylinder, which is necessary for the
implementation of high-quality mixture formation and combustion of the mixture.
However, with an increase in the diameter of the cylinder, the heat loss to the cooling medium
decreases, which leads to an increase in the indicated efficiency and an increase in the thermal stress of
the engine parts. With an increase in the number of cylinders and their row arrangement, the engine
length increases, the height and width decrease. By the arrangement of the cylinders, ship engines are
divided into in-line (L) and V-type engines. The most widespread in-line with a vertical arrangement
of cylinders. This arrangement is convenient when servicing the engine, and also simplifies the design
of the crankcase.
With the increase in power and speed, a large spread V-type engines, which significantly reduce
the overall length, weight and cost of manufacture. The parameters of these engines depend primarily
on the angle of the collapse of the cylinders and the angle of the cranks. These angles affect not only
balance, but also to a large extent the uniformity of the engine speed, its overall dimensions, the design
of the intake tract and the uniformity of air supply to the cylinders, as well as the convenience of repair
and maintenance. V-type engine layout is mainly applied to medium- and high-speed.
Engine speed. In a petroleum (gasoline) engine with increasing engine speed (n, rpm), the
efficiency of the combustion process does not deteriorate, however, heat loss per cycle is reduced due
to the reduced time for heat exchange between the gases (combustion products) and the walls, which
increases the indicated efficiency. With increasing n, the amount of carbon monoxide CO in the
exhaust gases increases, and nitrogen oxides NO ɯ decreases.
In a diesel engine with increasing speed, the quality of fuel atomization improves, the speed of the
air charge increases, and the temperature and pressure by the end of the compression process become
higher. The cumulative effect of these factors causes an increase in the indicated HIILFLHQF\Ș i ) while
simultaneously increasing the "stiffness" of combustion, the maximum pressure during combustion
(ɪ z ), and the pressure buildup rate (d p /dij max ) in the rapid combustion phase. Indicator parameters with
growth of n are improved as long as the fuel supply equipment works reliably, and the filling ratio
remains rather high.
However, with an increase of the engine speed, inertial loads increase, the dimensions and mass of
parts of the crank mechanism increase, friction losses, and the reliability and durability of the engine
decrease. In addition, when using the SPP with low-speed engine and direct transfer of power to the
screw, increasing the engine speed leads to a decrease in the efficiency of the propulsion plant.
Method of fuel-air mixing and combustion chambers shapes. Distinguish between external and
internal fuel-air mixing. For gasoline and gas engines with an external type of mixture formation, the
choice of the shape of the combustion chamber is to ensure high cylinder filling, efficiency of the
combustion process with the lowest toxicity of the combustion products and use of the heat generated.
The design of the combustion chamber largely depends on the overall engine layout. The combustion
chamber should provide a high degree of purification from exhaust gases and filling the cylinders with
fresh charge; reducing the ratio of the surface of the combustion chamber F ch to its volume V ch , which
reduces the heat loss to the cooling system; optimal degree of turbulence at the inlet and compression;
the possibility of increasing the degree of compression while reducing the tendency to detonation
burning; reducing the duration of burning.
For diesel engines, the shape of the combustion chamber depends on the type of fuel-air mixture
formation chosen: non divided chamber (volume, film or volume-film) or divided chamber (swirl and
pre-chamber). In the volumetric method of mixing, providing the best efficiency with the greatest
"stiffness" of combustion, and therefore significant loads on crank mechanism parts, non divided
shallow combustion chambers are used in the cylindrical or close piston forms, as well as Hisselman
chambers. In case of film mixing, which provides a sufficiently high efficiency with a significant
15
reduction of loads on crank mechanism parts, semi-divided combustion chamber shapes are used,
located in the piston crown. For these diesels difficult forcing them in power, in particular the use of
turbocharging.
In divided chamber diesel engines, the economy is worse than non divided chamber and semi-
divided ones. Their main advantages are lower requirements for fuel equipment and lower toxicity of
exhaust gases.
For four-stroke, naturally aspirated diesels, the excess air ratio is in nominal mode Į ...1.4,
with turbocharging Į . For two-stroke low-speed turbocharged diesel engines Į .
Type of using fuel. Methods of formation of the air-fuel mixture, and the course of chemical
reactions depend on the requirements for fuels used in internal combustion engines. In engines with
external mixing (gasoline and gas engines), the fuel supplied with the air through the intake valve
should easily evaporate and form a close to homogeneous mixture with the incoming air. In engines
with internal mixing, fuel is fed directly into the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke. Start
filing slightly ahead of the time of ignition, and part of the fuel is introduced in the combustion
process. Under these conditions, it is necessary to ensure the required quality of atomization of fuel, in
which the small, rapidly evaporating droplets formed are mixed with the air in the cylinder.
These requirements are met by liquid and gaseous fuels. Diesel fuels MDO and heavy fuel oils
HFO are used as liquid fuels in marine engines. All these fuels are very close in elemental composition
and heat of combustion. When performing calculations of the operating cycle of the engine, the
average experimental composition of the fuel, the lowest calorific value (LHV) ɇ ɢ and the average
PROHFXODUZHLJKWȝWRIIXHODFFRUGLQJWR7DEOH2.1 should be specified. The following composition is
typical for standard diesel fuel. All calculations for the course project is recommended to apply in
relation to this type of fuel.

Table 2.1 – Elementary content and properties of using fuel

ɉɚɪɚɦɟɬɪ Petrol MDO HFO
Fuel oil elementary content (by mass)
ɋ – carbon 0.85 0.87 0.85…0.87
ɇ – hydrogen 0.15 0.126 0.121…0.125
O – oxygen ––– 0.004 0.004…0.006
S – sulphur 0.004…0.04
Average molecular weight, kg/kmol (ȝ ɬ ) 110…120 180…200 200…230
Low heat value, kJ/kg (ɇ ɢ ) (LHV) 44000 42700 42500
Hydrogen and carbon oxides ratio §¨¨ Ȁ
Ȃ Ǿz ·
¸ 0.45…0.5 – –
© Ȃ CɈ ¸¹

2.1.4 Selection and justification of the initial data for the thermodynamic calculation of the
engine cycle
Ambient temperature and pressure (Ɍ 0 , ɪ 0 ). Pressure and temperature of the ambient air are ɪ 0 =0,1
ɆPa and Ɍ 0 =288 Ʉ.
For turbocharged engines, the environmental parameters are equal to the corresponding parameters
of the air at the outlet of the compressor, and in the presence of intermediate air cooling – the pressure
and temperature of the air behind the cooler. Depending on the pressure increase ratio, the following
values of air pressure p k at the outlet of the compressor are taken: low pressure charging p k = 1.5up 0 ,
medium pressure charging p k = (1.5 ... 2.2) u p 0 , high pressure charging p k = (2.2 ... 4.0) u p 0 .
The air temperature in the air receiver of the turbocharged engine is equal to the temperature at the
outlet of the compressor and depends on the pressure increase ratio:
nɤ 1
§ɪ · nɤ
ȉɤ ȉ0¨ ɤ ¸ (1.1)
¨ɪ ¸
© 0¹

16
where n ɤ – polytropic compression coefficient in a compressor, depending on its type and the degree
of perfection of the process occurring in it, n ɤ =1,4…2.
In an engine with a cooler after the compressor, the temperature in the air receiver is determined as
follows:
Ɍɤ Ɍ ɤ'  V ɨɯ (Ɍ ɤ'  Tɚ2 ), (1.2)

where Tɚ2 – average temperature of the cooling agent in the air cooler, when using seawater for
cooling Tɚ = Ɍ 0 = 293 Ʉ;
2

Ɍ‘ ɤ – air temperature before the cooler, which is assumed to be equal to the temperature at the
outlet of the compressor;
ı ɨɯ – cooling degree for water-air heat exchangers, ı ɨɯ = 0,5…0,9,
Residual gases pressure ɪ r , ɆPɚ, The residual gases pressure in the engine cylinder ɪ r depends on
the number, size and location of the valves, the resistance of the intake and exhaust pipilines, valve
timing, the compression air ratio, engine speed and other factors. For engines with release to the
atmosphere accept: ɪ r = (1,05…1,25)ɪ 0 . It is recommended to take a higher value for high-speed
engines. For turbocharged engines with a gas turbine on release ɪ r = (0,76…0,98) ɪ ɤ .
Residual gases temperature for petroleum engines Ɍ r = 900…1100 Ʉ, for four-stroke diesel
engines – 700…900 Ʉ, for two-stroke diesel engines – 700…800 Ʉ. It should be borne in mind that an
LQFUHDVH LQ Į DQG İ OHDGV WR D GHFUHDVH LQ Ɍ r , and an increase in the engine speed increases the
temperature of the residual gases.
The degree of preheating charge at the inlet for four-stroke gasoline engines ǻ7 = 10 ... 20 K, four-
stroke diesel engines without turbocharging ǻ7 = 20...40 K; four- and two-stroke turbocharged diesel
HQJLQHVǻɌ ...10 K. It is necessary to take into account that with an increase in the diameter of the
cylinder D, the engine speed QDQGWKHGHJUHHRIFRPSUHVVLRQİWKHYDOXHRIɌ r is reduced, if the inlet
and exhaust pipelines are located near or the inlet pipe is equipped with heating, then the value of ǻ7
should be taken closer to the upper limit. Turbocharged engines in the absence of an intermediate
cooler, the charge temperature at the outlet of the compressor may exceed the temperature of the walls
of the intake duct. Under these conditions, there is no heating, but a cooling of the fresh charge. In
general, for engines with turbocharged ǻɌ = -5 ... 10 K
Resistance coefficient ɫ= ȕ2 + ȟ ɜɩ taking into account the drop in the velocity of fresh charge after it
enters the cylinder and the hydraulic resistance of the intake system of the engine, varies within 2.5 ...
4.0. ȕLVWKH coefficient of attenuation of the velocity of the charge, ȟ ɜɩ – coefficient of resistance of the
intake system in its narrowest section. The main influence on the value of c has engine speed. As n
increases, the coefficient increases too.
Average air speed in the flow areas of the intake valves (scavenging holes) of diesel engines
Ȧ ɜɩ = 30 ... 70 m/s; in gasoline engines Ȧ ɜɩ = 50...80 m/s, and in some types of engines it can reach
150 m/s. This speed depends on the diameter of the intake valve (total area of scavenging holes) and
the engine speed. With a decrease in the diameter of the inlet valve (the total area of scavenging holes)
and an increase in n, the average velocity Ȧ ɜɩ increases.
Polytrophic compression exponent (n 1 ),. The parameters of the compression process are calculated
according to the conditional average for the compression process of the polytropic index n 1 , varying
within for medium- and high-speed diesel engines – n 1 = 1,38…1,4, for low-speed diesel engines – n 1
= 1,34…1,42.
When choosing the value of n 1 , remember the following:
 with increasing engine speed n 1 increases;
 with an increase in the average temperature of the compression process, n 1 decreases;
 with a decrease in the cooling rate of the engine n 1 increases;
 with a decrease in the ratio of the cooling surface to the cylinder volume, n 1 increases; for diesel
engines with divided combustion chambers, n 1 = 1.34...1.38, with non-divided combustion chambers
n 1 = 1.32...1.42.
In different engines the exponent n 1 , has different numerical values varying with the size, speed
17
and load of the engine. The larger the cylinder volume the smaller the relative cooled area and,
consequently, the smaller is the amount of heat rejected to the cylinder walls, and the larger becomes
the numerical value of 1 n .
Polytrophic expansion exponent (n 2 ). The parameters of the expansion process are calculated with
the conventionally averaged polytropic expansion exponent n 2 . For gasoline engines n 2 = 1.23...1.30,
for medium- and low-speed diesel engines n 2 = 1.2...1.3, for high-speed diesel engines - n 2 =
1.15...1.25. It should be remembered that the polytropic expansion exponent depends on the mode of
operation of the engine, cylinder size, cooling method and a number of other factors. In all cases, when
the duration of fuel burnout increases, the relative heat exchange and gas leakage decrease, n 2
decreases.
Effective heat utilization efficiency (ȟ z ) this is parameter, which consider heat losses during
combustion process. It value ȟ z changes on nominal mode in following ranges:
for petroleum engines 0,85…0,9
for diesel engines:
low- and medium-speed 0,75…0,85;
high-speed 0,7…0,8;
Super long stroke low-speed (S/D =3,8…4,2) 0,92…0,97.
When selecting data for calculations, the relationship between these values and the mode of
operation of the engine should be taken into account. As the engine speed increases, the ȟ z value
increases with improved mixing and combustion. For gasoline engines, ȟ z increases with increasing n
until the increase in heat loss due to an increase in the afterburning phase of the fuel exceeds the
decrease in heat transfer due to a reduction in the contact time of hot gases with the cylinder walls.
Pressure increase ratio (Ȝ). When calculating combustion process in a diesel engine, in addition to
WKHYDOXHRIȟ]LWLVQHFHVVDU\WRVSHFLI\pressure increase ratio Ȝ. 7KHYDOXHRIȜGHSHQGVPDLQO\RQ
the type of mixing and the shape of the combustion chamber and varies in diesel engines within the
following limits:
for swirl chamber – 1,6…1,8;
pre-chamber – 1,4…1,6;
with direct injection and film fuel-air mixing – 1,6…1,8;
with direct injection and volume fuel-air mixing – 1,8…2,5;
for medium- and low-speed engines and working on HFO – 1,1…1,3.
:KHQFKRRVLQJȜLWVKRXOGEHUHPHPEHUHGWKDWZLWKDQLQFUHDVHLQWKHGHJUHHRISUHVVXUHLQFUHDVH
the rigidity of the engine operation increases, the loads of parts of the crank mechanism increase, the
friction losses increase, and the engine wear increases.
The coefficient of completeness of the indicator diagram for petroleum engines
ij = 0,95…0,97, for diesels ij = 0,92…0,95.

2.2 Engine thermal (engine cycle) calculation

2.2.1 Content and properties of fuel-air mixture and combustion products

Theoretical quantity of air which need for full combustion of the 1 kg fuel oil defined by equations:
for liquid fuel

1 §ɋ ɇ S Ɉ·
L0 ¨    ¸; (2.3)
0,208 © 12 4 32 32 ¹

1 §8 ·
l0 ¨ ɋ  8ɇ  S  Ɉ ¸ ; (2.4)
0,23 © 3 ¹
for gas fuel

18
 1 § m ɱ·
L0 ¨ n  - ¸ɋ n H m Oɱ (2.5)
0,21 © 4 2¹

ɝɞɟ l 0 – theoretical mass of air charge, kg;

L0 – theoretical quantity of air charge, kmol.
Amount of fresh air charge, (Ɇ 1 ) kmol, can be obtained from the following formulas:

for petroleum engines

1
Ȃ1 DL0  (2.6)
mò

for diesel engines

Ȃ1 DL0 (2.7)

for gas engines

Ȃ1 DL0  1 (2.8)

Amount of combustion products components, kmol:

for petroleum engines:
ɋuɄ
Ȃ CO ; (2.9)
12

ɋ
Ȃ CO2 u (1  Ʉ ) ; (2.10)
12

Ȃ Ǿ2 ȀȂ ɋɈ ; (2.11)

H
Ȃ H 2O ; (2.12)
2

Ȃ ȃ2 0,79DL0 ; (2.13)

§ 3ɇ ·
where Ʉ 2(1  D) u ¨1  ¸;
© ɋ ¹
for diesels:
ɋ
Ȃ CO 2 ; (2.14)
12

H
Ȃ H 2O ; (2.15)
2

Ȃ O2 0,21(D  1) Lo ; (2.16)

Ȃ N2 0,79DL0 ; (2.17)
for gas engines:
n
Ȃ CO2 ¦ nC H
i 1
n m Oɱ  ; (2.18)

19
 n

¦ 2 C H Oɱ  ;
m
Ȃ H 2O n m (2.19)
i 1

ȂO2 0,21D  1L0 ; (2.20)

Ȃ 12 0,79DL0  ȃ 2 . (2.21)

Total amount of the combustion products (Ɇ 2 ), kɦɨl/kg.

For fulness combustion (Į > 1)
n
M2 ¦M .
i 1
(2.22)

With aim to simplify of calculation, for defining Ɇ 2 can be obtained following expressions:

C H
for fulness combustion (Į>1) Ȃ2   (D  0,21) L0 ; (2.23)
12 2

C H
for not full combustion (Į<1) Ȃ2   0,79DL0 . (2.24)
12 2

Average molar isochoric heat capacity of the combustion products, (c'' v ) kJ/(kmoluK):

for petroleum engines

ɫ v''
1
M2
>  
20,6  222 u10 5 t Ȃ CO  35,6  524 u10 5 t Ȃ CO2  20,3  146 u10 5 t Ȃ Ǿ 2 

 
+ 26,6  470 u10 5 t Ȃ Ǿ 2ȅ  20,6  222 u10 5 t Ȃ ȃ 2 @; (2.25)

for diesel engines

cv''
1
M2
>  
35,6  524 u 10 5 t Ȃ CO2  26,6  470 u 10 5 t Ȃ Ǿ 2O  20,6  222 u 10 5 t Ȃ Ɉ2 


+ 20,6  222 u10 5 t Ȃ ȃ 2 @. (2.26)

Value of average molar isochoric heat capacity of the combustion products, in the range of
temperatures t z – 1000…2800 °ɋ can be approximated using the following approximating equations
(the mean square error of the approximation does not exceed 0.6% of the average c v value):
for petroleum combustion products

c'' v = 19,04667 +0,002326t z + 5,32Į, kJ/(kmoluK), (2.27)

for diesel fuel combustion products

c'' v =27,0211+0,002039t z -2,234Į, kJ/(kmoluK). (2.28)

2.2.2 Air inlet process (Charging)

Pressure at the end of air inlet process , (ɪ ɚ ) ɆPɚ.
20
 Resistances in the inlet line leads to a decrease of the pressure ɪ ɚ , supplied to the cylinder charge
by the amount ǻ ɪ ɚ

ɪ ɚ = ɪ 0 – ǻ ɪ ɚ or ɪ ɚ = ɪ comp – ǻ ɪ ɚ .

Pressure loss due to intake system resistance can be determined from the Bernoulli equation.
Taking a zero charge rate at the entrance to the intake system and neglecting the change in charge
density during its movement, we get:

Zɜɩ
2
'pa ɫ U ɤ u10 6 , ɆPɚ (2.29)
2

where U ɤ – air density in the working cylinder, kg/m3.

The density of air in the working cylinder is determined by the formula

ɪ u 106
Uɤ 0
, (2.30)
RɜT0

where R ɜ = 287 kJ(kguɄ) is the gas constant of air.

For diesel engines with charging instead of ɪ ɨ and Ɍ ɨ should put ɪ comp and Ɍ comp . For marine four-
stroke aspired diesel engines ɪ ɚ =(0,8…0,9)ɪ ɨ , turbocharged ɪ ɚ =(0,9…0,96)ɪ comp . In two-stroke
diesel engines with uniflow scavenging, given the pressure of the piston at the stage of closing the
exhaust valve ɪ ɚ =(0,96…1,1)ɪ comp . Upper pressures should be taken for impulse turbocharged
engines.

Coefficient of residual gases (Ȗ r ). This coefficient characterizes the quality of cleaning the cylinder
from the products of combustion and is defined as the ratio beetwen the number of moles of residual
gases and the number of moles of fresh air charge. Excluding charging residual gas coefficient
determined using dependence

(Ɍ 0  'Ɍ ) u pr
Jr ; (2.31)
Ɍ r u (H 0 pɚ  pr )

For the engine with turbocharging should be instead of Ɍ ɨ substitute Ɍ ɨcomp . Coefficient of residual
gases
- for four-stroke gasoline and gas engines Ȗ r =0,06…0,12;
- for four-stroke diesel aspired engines Ȗ r =0,06…0,04;
- for four-stroke turbocharged diesel engines Ȗ r =0,04…0,02;
- two-stroke with uniflow scavenging Ȗ r =0,04…0,08;
- two-stroke with loop scavenging Ȗ r =0,08…0,12;
- two-stroke with cross scavenging Ȗ r =0,12…0,14;
Temperature at the end of the inlet process (Ɍ ɚ ) depends on the ambient temperature Ɍ 0 (Ɍ comp ),
charge preheating ǻT , temperature of residual gases Ɍ r and residual gas coefficient Ȗ r
ȉ ɨ  'ȉ  J r ȉ r
ȉɚ ; (2.32)
1 Jr

21
 For turbocharged engines instead of Ɍ ɨ should put Ɍ comp . The inlet air temperature range for the
aspired engine is Ɍ ɚ = 310…350 Ʉ, and for turbocharged diesel engines Ɍ ɚ = 320…400 Ʉ

Charge efficiency (Ș v ) is a significant quality indicator of gas exchange processes of the inlet stroke
and determined by the ratio of the actual amount of fresh charge released to the cylinder, to the amount
of charge that would have been contained in the cylinder volume at the outside air pressure and
temperature, ɪ 0 and Ɍ 0 :

MȾ
Kv ,
Ɇ0

where Ɇ act - the actual number of moles of fresh charge in the cylinder;
Ɇ 0 - the number of moles of the fresh charge, which would have been contained in the cylinder
volume at ɪ 0 and Ɍ 0 (aspired engines) or at ɪ comp and Ɍ comp (turbocharged engines).
Without taking into scavenging and recharging of the cylinder for marine engines, the charge
efficiency is:

Tɤ § H 0 ɪ ɚ ɪr ·
Kv ¨  ¸¸ ; (2.33)
(Ɍ ɤ  'Ɍ ) u (H 0  1) ¨© ɪɤ ɪɤ ¹

Must be considered when analyzing the results that for diesels Ș v = 0,8…0,9; for gasoline and gas
engines Ș v = 0,75…0,85.

2.2.3 Compression process

In a real engine heat capacity of the charge in the cylinder changes depending on the temperature,
since heat exchange occurs with the cylinder walls, as well as the nature of straight edema Nia n
Processes influence leakage of gases through leaks of valves and piston rings, pre-charge the cylinder
to the intake valve closing, evaporation fuel combustion at the end of compression. In connection with
this description of the current thermodynamic process in real engine difficult. In practice, it is
considered that the compression process takes place a polytropic index n 1 , the magnitude of which
provides the same work in the compression process as in the case of a variable indicator that occurs in
the actual process.
Pressure and temperature at the end of compression. From the equation of a polytrophic line, the
pressure and temperature at the end of the compression stroke are
Pressure at the end of the compression process (ɪ ɫ ), MPa.

ɪɫ ɪɚ u H 0n1 ; (2.34)

For gasoline and gas engines ɪ ɫ =0.6…1.5 MPa, for diesel engines ɪ ɫ =3.5…16.0 MPa.

The temperature at the end of combustion process, (Ɍ ɫ ) Ʉ.

Ɍ ɫ = Ɍ ɚ H 0 n11 . (2.35)

For petroleum and gas engines Ɍ ɫ = 550…750 Ʉ, for diesel engines Ɍ ɫ =650…900 Ʉ.
Average molar isochoric heat capacity of the combustion products (ɫ’ v ), kJ/(kmoluK).
To simplify the calculations, the average molar heat capacity of the combustible mixture is
assumed to be equal to the heat capacity of air. To calculate ɫ’ v , empirical dependence is used:
22
 cv' 20,088  3,7544 u 10 3 tc  5,657 u 10 7 tc2 , (2.36)
where t c =T c –273°C.
2.2.4 Combustion process
The combustion process in petroleum and gas engines.
The combustion equation is:

[ z ( H ɢ  'H u ) '
 cv t c Pcv'' t z ; (2.37)
Ȃ 1 1  J r 
The combustion process in diesel engines.
The combustion equation is:
[zǾɢ
  Pcv'  8,314O tc P(cv"  8,314)t z , (2.38)
Ȃ 1 1  J r 

where Ɇ 1 – total amount of fuel-air mixture, kmol/kg (2.7, 2.8);

ɇ ɢ – low heat value of the fuel, (for MDO 42700 kJ/kg, for HFO 42500 kJ/kg);
ǻɇ ɢ – non relies heat amount, kJ/kg;
ɫ' v – average molar heat capacity of the working mixture, kJ/(kmoluK) (2.36);
ɫ” v – average molar heat capacity of the combustion products, kJ/(kmoludegree) (2.26, 2.28);
ȝ – coefficient of molecular changing;
Ȝ – engine pressure increase ratio;
Ȗ r – coefficient of residual gases;
ȟ z – effective heat utilization efficiency;
t c and t z – temperatures at the end of compression and at the end combustion, respectively, °ɋ.

t c = Ɍ c – 273, t z = Ɍ z – 273.

Non relies heat amount due to oxygen insufficient (ǻH u ) for petroleum engines kJ/kg with account
of chemical combustion fulness at Į <1.

ǻH u = 119950(1-Į)L 0 . (2.39)

Coefficient of molecular changing (ȝ).

M 2  JM 1
P . (2.40)
M 1  JM 1

For petroleum engines ȝ=1,06…1,12, for diesels and gas engines ȝ=1,03…1,06.
Equations (2.39, 2.40) after substitution of the above values and the value of c'' v according to
equations (2.27, 2.28) turns into a quadratic equation, relatively to t z .

Ⱥ t z2 + ȼt z –ɋ = 0 . (2.41)

Solving the equation (2.39, 2.40), we find the temperature t z, , °ɋ, at the point z.

ȼ + ȼ 2 + 4 Ⱥɋ
t z= , (2.42)
2Ⱥ

Ɍ z = t z + 273 K.

Maximum combustion temperature for petroleum and gas engines Ɍ z =2300…2900 K. For diesel
23
engines – Ɍ z =1500…2200 K.
Pressure increase coefficient for petroleum and gas engines (Ȝ):

ȉz
O P . (2.43)
ȉc

Estimated value Ȝ for four-stroke petroleum and gas engines should be at the next range 3.2…4.5.
For diesel engines Ȝ in the next range 1.1…2.5 depends on type of engine (look. page. 19).
Theoretical pressure at the end of combustion for internal combustion engines (ɪ z ), ɆPɚ.

ɪ z =ɪ ɫ Ȝ ; (2.44)

For petroleum and gas engines ɪ z = 3,0…5,0 ɆPɚ. In the actual cycle at the end of combustion
process pressure ɪ zg , ɆPɚ, approximately on 15 % lower than theoretical, that’s why

ɪ zg = 0,85 ɪ z . (2.45)

In the further calculation should use theoretical pressure ɪ z.

Subsequent expansion ratio (ȡ) for diesel engines working at dual cycles:

ȝ ȉz
ȡ u . (2.46)
Ȝ ȉc

For diesel engines ȡ =1,2…1,7.

2.2.5 Expansion process

Pressure at the end of expansion (ɪ ɜ ), ɆPɚ.
For carbureted ICE:

pz
pâ , (2.47)
H0 2
n

For diesel engines

pz
pɜ , (2.48)
G n2

where į – subsequent expansion ratio, for carbureted engines į = İ .

For diesel engines

H0
G . (2.49)
U

Pressure at the end of expansion for petroleum and gas engines p ɜ =0,35…0,5 ɆPɚ; for diesel
engines ɪ ɜ =0,2…0,4 ɆPɚ.
Temperature at the end of expansion (Ɍ ɜ ), Ʉ
For carbureted ICE:

, (2.50)

24
For diesel engines

Tz
Tɜ . (2.51)
G n2 1

For petroleum and gas engines Ɍ ɜ = 1200…1500 Ʉ; for diesel engines Ɍ ɜ =900…1200 Ʉ.

2.2.6 Exhaust process

When calculating the suction process, the values of the pressure ɪ r and the exhaust gases
temperature at the end of the release were approximated. The accuracy of the choice of these values
can be checked by calculating the temperature of residual gases using the formula:

Tb
Tr (2.52)
pb
3
pr

2.2.7 Indicated parameters of the cycle

Mean indicated pressure (ɪ i ), MPa,
For petroleum engines:

pc ª O § 1 · 1 § 1 ·º
p i' « ¨1  n2 1 ¸  ¨1  n1 1 ¸» ; (2.53)
İ - 1 ¬ n2  1 © İ ¹ n1  1 © İ ¹¼

For diesels

pc ª Ȝȡ § 1 · 1 § 1 · º
p i' « ¨1  n2 1 ¸  ¨1  n 1 ¸  Ȝȡ  1» . (2.54)
¨
İ 0 - 1 «¬ n2  1 © į ¹ n1  1 © İ 0 ¹ ¸
»¼
1

For gasoline engines ɪ i = 0,8…1,2 ɆPɚ, for aspired diesels ɪ i = 0,75…1,05 ɆPɚ, for turbocharged
diesels ɪ i = 1,05…2,7 ɆPɚ, for gas engines ɪ i = 0,5…0,7 ɆPɚ.
The actual mean indicated pressure of the cycle is somewhat less than the theoretical one, due to
the difference between the actual indicator diagram and the theoretical one. This difference is taken
into account by the coefficient of completeness of the indicator diagram, which for gasoline engines is
DVVXPHGWREHij ...IRUGLHVHOHQJLQHVij ...0.95. 7DNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKHFRHIILFLHQWij
the actual mean indicated pressure of the cycle is equal to:

pi Mpi' . (2.55)

Indicated efficiency for engines operating on liquid fuel (Ș i ),

pi l 0 Į
Și . (2.56)
ȡ 0 Ǿ ɢ Șv

In equation (2.56) LHV H u need to substitute expressing in ɆJ/kg.

For gasoline and gas engines at the nominal mode, the indicated efficiency Ș i = 0.28...0.33; for
diesel engines Ș i = 0.42...0.45.
Specific indicated fuel oil consumption (g i ), g/(kWh),

25
 3600
gi ; (2.57)
Ǿ ɢ Și

where LHV ɇ u substitute in ɆJ/kg;

for gas fuel, m3/(kWh),
1
Vi= . (2.58)
Ǿ ɢ Kɿ

It should be remembered that the limits of change g i on the nominal mode for gasoline engines are
g i = 245...300 g/(kWh), for four-stroke diesel engines g i = 175...240 g/(kWh), for two-stroke diesel
engines g i = 155...200 g/(kWh).

2.2.8 Effective parameters of the engine

Mean effective pressure of the cycle (ɪ ɟ ) is defined as the difference between the mean indicated
pressure of the cycle p i and the mean pressure of mechanical losses ɪ ɦ

ɪ ɟ = ɪ i –ɪ ɦ . (2.59)

The mean pressure of mechanical losses is the power expended on overcoming friction in the crank
mechanism, the drive of auxiliary mechanisms, the suction and exhaust processes, related to the unit
volume of the cylinder. To determine the value of ɪ ɦ , an empirical formula is used, having a general
view:

ɪ ɦ =Ⱥ ɪ ȼ ɪ V ɩ.ɫɪ , ɆPɚ (2.60)

where V ɩ.ɫɪ. – mean piston speed, m/s;

Ⱥ ɪ , ȼ ɪ – coefficients.
Depending on the design features of the engines, the coefficients Ⱥ ɪ and ȼ ɪ take the following
values: gasoline engines with S/D > 1 Ⱥ ɪ = 0.05; ȼ ɪ = 0,0155; gasoline engines with S/D <1 Ⱥ ɪ =
0.034; ȼ ɪ = 0.013; diesel engines with divided combustion chamber Ⱥ ɪ = 0.105; ȼ ɪ = 0,0138; diesel
engines with non-divided combustion chamber Ⱥ ɪ = 0.105; ȼ ɪ = 0,0120.
Mechanical efficiency (Ș ɦ ). The mechanical efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the
mean effective pressure to the mean indicated pressure

ɪɟ
Kɦ ; (2.61)
ɪi
Effective efficiency (Ș ɟ ).

Kɟ Ki u K ɦ ; (2.62)

Specific fuel oil consumption (g e ), g/(kWh),

gi
gɟ ; (2.63)
Kɦ

for gas fuel, m3/(kWh),

1
Vɟ= ; (2.64)
Ǿ ɢ Kɟ

26
 In table 2.2. values are given Ș ɦ , ɪ ɟ , Șɟ , g ɟ for nominal continue rating (mode).

Table 2.2 – Effective parameters

Type of engine ȘȂ ɪ ɟ ɆPɚ Șɟ g ɟ , g/(kWh)

Gasoline 0,7…0,85 0,6…0,95 0,25…0,33 300…325
Gas 0,75…0,85 0,5…0,75 0,23…0,28 -
High-speed 0,8…0,85 0,5…2,7 0,35…0,41 211…245
Medium speed 0,89…0,91 0,5…3,0 0,35…0,47 175…240
Low-speed 0,88…0,93 0,75…2,0 0,4…0,51 167…217

2.2.9 Specification of the main engine dimensions

Engine displacement (V ɥ ), l:
30Wȃ ɟ
Vɥ = ; (2.65)
ɪɟ n

where IJ – stroke coefficient, for four-stroke engine is equal 4 and for two-stroke engines – 2.

Cylinder working volume (V h ), l:

Vɥ
Vh= . (2.66)
i

Diameter of cylinder (D), mm,

4Vh
D = 100 3 . (2.67)
SS / D 

Piston stroke (S), mm,

§S·
S= ¨ ¸D . (2.68)
©D¹

The resulting values of S and D should be rounded up to an integer value. Having received S and D
it is necessary to clarify the main parameters and indicators of the engine:
- engine displacement, l,

SD 2 S
Vɥ = ; (2.69)
4 u 10 6

– effective power, kWh

ɪɟV ɥ n
ȃɟ ; (2.70)
30W

– torque, Num,

3 u10 4 u ȃ ɟ
Ɇɟ = ; (2.71)
Sn
27
 – fuel consumption per hour, kg/h,

G ɬ = ȃ ɟ u g ɟ u 10 3 ; (2.72)

– mean piston speed, m/s,

Sn
V ɩ.ɫɪ. = . (2.73)
30000

If there is a discrepancy between the previously accepted value V ɩ.ɫɪ and obtained by this formula
by more than 5 ... 10 %, it is necessary to recalculate the effective parameters of the engine, starting
with the determination of the new value of the mean mechanical pressure.
When performing calculations, the dimension of all quantities should be indicated after the
calculated dependence; All calculations are accompanied by brief explanations, necessary diagrams
and graphs. If during the calculation it is necessary to set the values of a quantity, then it should be
explained why this value was chosen. It is necessary to solve equations in a letter form and only in the
final dependence to substitute numerical values. During the calculation, it is recommended to compare
the obtained values of the parameters of individual processes (p ɚ , Ɍ ɚ , Ȗɱ , Șv , ɪ ɫ , Ɍ ɫ etc.) and the
output parameters of the internal combustion engine (ɪ ɟ , N e , g ɟ , Șɟ etc.) with the values of these
parameters for the internal combustion engine selected as prototype, taking into account current trends
in engine development.

2.3 Construction of the indicator diagram

2.3.1 Construction of the four-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram

The indicator diagram is constructed in order to verify the analytically obtained value of the mean
indicated pressure and a visual representation of the progress of the operating cycle in the cylinder of
the engine being calculated.
The diagram (Fig. 2.1a) should be draw on A4 sheet of paper (210u297 mm) in the following
sequence.
Select the scale of volumes and pressure so that the diagram takes up the entire sheet, and its height
was 1.2...1.7 times the base.
Apply a uniform pressure scale p (1, 2, 3, MPa) and volumes on the axis of the diagram, setting the
value of the volume of the combustion chamber, l, on the abscissa axis

Vh
Vc
H 1

and full cylinder volume is V ɚ = V ɫ + V h , and on the ordinate axis – at the appropriate pressure
scale, key points of the cycle: ɫ, z, z', ɜ.
Data for the construction of polytropic compression and expansion can be found in an analytical or
graphical way. When applying the analytical method, the working volume is divided into parts and the
intermediate value of the volumes V i . is determined. It is recommended to take smaller spaces between
V i . in the region of the upper dead point and large ones in the area of the lower dead point to ensure
accuracy of construction. The intermediate value of pressure is determined by the formulas:
On the expansion curve

n1
§V ·
ɪɫL ɪɚ ¨¨ ɚ ¸¸ ;
© Vi ¹
on expansion curve

28
 n2
§V ·
ɪbi ɪɜ ¨¨ ɚ ¸¸ ;
© Vi ¹
where V z = V c – for gasoline engines;
V z = V c ȡ – for diesels;
ȡ – preliminary expansion ratio.
The calculation of intermediate pressure values is recommended in the form of table 2.3.

Table 2.3 – Data for indicator diagram drawing

Vi V ɚ /V i p ci p bi

After constructing the intermediate points, they are connected with the help of French curve and
g
get the calculated indicator diagram.

Figure 2.1 ɚ – Indicator diagram of four-stroke diesel engine

The calculated indicator diagram is recommended to be rounded, as shown in figure ɚDVLQD

real engine due to the advance of self-ignition the working mixture ignites before the arrival of the
29
piston at TDC and increases the pressure at the end of the compression process; The process of visible
combustion occurs at a constantly changing volume. The actual pressure of the end of visible
combustion ɪ zg = 0,85uɪ z ; the opening of the exhaust valve before the arrival of the piston at TDC
reduces the pressure at the end of expansion and the process of release and filling of the cylinder takes
place.
The position of point ɫ' depends on the ignition timing from ɫ'' or the beginning of the fuel supply,
and the position of point c is approximately determined by the expression:

ɪ ɫ'' = (1,15…1,25)ɪ ɫ .

The position of the point z' depends on the preliminary expansion ratio. The position of the point b
determines the angle of anticipation of exhaust, the point b' is usually located between points b and a.
According to the indicator diagram for checking the heat calculation and plotting the diagram, the
mean indicator pressure is determined, MPa,

where F – area of the indicator diagram, mm;

l – the distance between TDC and BDC, mm;
m p – pressure scale, ɆPɚ/mm.
The discrepancy between the ɪ i , defined - analytical and graphical ways, should not exceed 3 %.

2.3.2 Construction of the two-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram

The diagram of the design cycle of a two-stroke engine is constructed as follows. Depending on the
required size of the diagram, the pressure scale is taken ɬ ɪ , mm/MPa, and the length of the segment
corresponding to the working volume of the cylinder V s is chosen. The volumes of the cylinder at
characteristic points of the indicator diagram or the segments of the diagram corresponding to these
volumes are calculated depending on the working volume of the cylinder V s from the following
relations:
– volume of the combustion chamber

V ɫ = V s (1-ȥ a )/(İ-1)

where ȥ a – proportion of the lost stroke due to scavenging holes;

– cylinder volume at the beginning of compression

V ɚ =V ɫ +V s (1-ȥ a );

– cylinder volume at the end of visible combustion

V z’ = ȡV c ,

where ȡ – preliminary expansion ratio.

After that, the calculated values are plotted on the abscissa axis as shown in figure 2.1b.
On ordinate axis carried out at appropriate volumes, the values of pressure ɪ ɚ , ɪ ɫ , p z , ɪ ɶ are laid in
the accepted scale of pressure. The lines of polytropic compression and expansion are calculated and
constructed, as well as for a four-stroke engine, and the results of the calculations are entered in
table 2.3.
The pressure values are plotted on the diagram with the corresponding values of the volumes V i .
Smooth curved ɚɫ, z’b., are drawn through the points obtained. Having drawn straight lines ɫz, zz’, ba,
ɚɨ, get a diagram of the design cycle of a two-stroke diesel engine. Points b and 0 are joined by a
30
smooth curve.
The actual indicator diagram differs from the diagram of the calculation cycle and has rounds in the
region of points ɫ, z, z’.

Figure 2.1b – Indicator diagram of two-stroke diesel engine

The considered features of an actual indicator diagram explain the reasons for the decrease in its
area compared to the area of the calculation cycle diagram. In two-stroke diesel engines, the tail part of
the actual indicator diagram (ab0) is partially and in some cases fully compensates for the reduction in
the area of the diagram. The difference between the areas of the actual indicator diagram and the
diagram of the calculation cycle is estimated by the coefficient of completeness of the indicator
diagram, which is the ratio of the area of the actual indicator diagram to the area of the calculation
cycle diagram: ij ɩ = F a /F p , and is set when designing on the basis of the prototype.

2.4 Converting of indicator diagram from ɪV coordinates to ɪij

For further dynamic calculation and analysis of the nature of scavenging, first of all, in two-stroke
engines, it is necessary to know how the gas pressure in the cylinder changes as a function of the angle
of rotation of the engine crankshaft. To do this, the indicator diagram is converted from the coordinates
of pV to the coordinates of Sij.
31
 The construction of the graph of p changes begins with the construction of the indicator diagram
obtained from the results of the thermal calculation (Fig. 2.2).
In the previously selected scale, the indicator diagram is made in the pV coordinates. To converting
it to the FRRUGLQDWHVSijXVes the Brix method.
Draw an auxiliary half-radius r = S/2 (Fig. 2.2). Point O corresponds to its geometric center and its
edges connected with the TDC and BDC of the diagram. The point O' is shifted by the value of OO' =
r 2 /2L (Brix correction) along the abscissa to the BDC side. The segment OO' corresponds to the
difference in displacement carried by the piston for the first and second quarters of the crankshaft
rotation. Further, from the center O', an auxiliary semicircle of arbitrary radius r 1 , (r 1 § r/2) is divided
into angular intervals. In figure 1, angled intervals of 15 ° are applied, it is recommended to choose the
step of breaking at 10 °, which ensures greater accuracy of rebuilding. From the center O 'to the
intersection with the circle of radius r, rays are carried out, and at the point of their intersection mark
the corresponding angles of the crank. For two-stroke engines, each intersection point corresponds to
two adjacent angles of rotation, and for four-stroke - four (except for TDC). Then from the points
obtained, they conduct lines of vertical projection to the intersection with the lines of pressure on the
pV diagram (taking into account rounding). Having drawn from the points of intersection of the
projections with the indicator diagram, the lines parallel to the abscissa axis to the intersection with the
FRRUGLQDWHVDWWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJDQJOHVijZHREWDLQWKHSRLQWVRIWKHYDOXHVRISLQWKHFRRUGLQDWHVSij
(Fig. 2.2 shows an example of the transfer for angles 135 ° and 225 °). The constructed points connect
a smooth curve using French curve or templates.
The curve thus obtained is an indicator diagram of the engine working process deployed at the
angle of rotation.
For the four-stroke engines it is recommended to draw only curves of the cycle corresponding to
the points of compression and expansion of the working fluid (180...540 °), but the suction curve
(0…180 °) and the expansion curve (540...720 °) to be applied in the form of straight lines in the
selected scale of pressure, rounding them at the ends.

32
 33
Figure 2.2 – Converting of indicator diagram from ɪV coordinates to ɪij by Brix method
 SECTION 3

KINEMATIC AND DYNAMIC CALCULATION

OF MARINE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The purpose of the kinematic and dynamic calculation is to consolidate knowledge in the section
"Kinematic and dynamic of the crank mechanism"; instilling skills to determine the forces and
moments acting in the MICE.
Kinematic and dynamic calculation is performed after thermal calculation. Its results are used for
calibration calculation and strength analysis of the main parts of the crank mechanism of the engine.

3.1 General guidelines for the calculation

Kinematic and dynamic calculation of the crank mechanism perform to determine the total forces
and moments arising from the pressure of gases and inertial forces.
Analysis of the forces acting in the crank mechanism is required to calculate engine parts for
strength and to determine bearing loads. It is carried out for a specific mode of engine operation. In the
engine crank mechanism consider the load from the force of pressure of gases in the cylinder and the
forces of inertia of moving masses (the forces of friction and gravity are neglected).
During each working cycle (720 ° for four- and 360 ° for a two-stroke engine), the forces acting in
the crank end-to-end motion vary continuously in magnitude and direction. Therefore, to determine the
nature of the change in these forces from the angle of rotation of the crankshaft, their values are
determined for a number of individual positions, usually every 10 ... 30 ° of the angle of rotation of the
crankshaft.
Kinematic and dynamic calculations are performed in the following sequence:
1) Tables of initial data for piston displacement, its speed and acceleration are compiled. According
to the results of the calculation, diagrams of S x , W, J. are built.
2) Prepare tables of initial data for performing a dynamic calculation and build up diagrams of the
forces Ɋ ɝ , Ɋ j , Ɋ ɫ , N, S, Ʉ, Ɍ.
3) Build a polar diagram of the load on the crank journal.
4) Reconstruct the polar load pattern in rectangular coordinates.
5) Build a diagram of the wear of the crank journal.
6) Determine the total torque Ɇ z from all cylinders of the engine and build a graph of its changes
Ɇ z = f(ij°).
7) Determine the average torque of the engine Ɇ ɫɪ and check its value.

3.2 Crank mechanism cinematic

3.2.1 Kinematic analysis of the crank mechanism

The crank mechanism serves to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotational
motion of the crankshaft. Below are the kinematic dependencies for crank mechanisms most widely
used in MICE.
In figure 3.1 shows the diagrams of the crank mechanism most commonly used in marine engines.
In most structures, a central crank mechanism is used (Fig. 3.1 a), in which the axes of the cylinder
and the crankshaft are in the same plane.
Such a mechanism is characterized by two kinematic parameters: the crank radius r and the
connecting rod length L ɲ . Instead of the last parameter, the dimensionless is usually used it is the ratio
between the crankshaft and the length of connecting rod Ȝ:

Ȝ = r/ L ɲ ; 0,2 < Ȝ < 0,32. (3.1)

)RU ODUJH YDOXHV RI Ȝ relatively short connecting rods), the height and weight of the engine
decrease, but the normal pressure of the piston on the cylinder liner (or the crosshead slide on the
guides) and the second-order inertia forces of the reciprocating moving masses is increases.
34
 An offset (deaxial) crank (Fig. 3.1 b) can be obtained by shifting the axis of the pin relative to the
axis of the cylinder or by displacing the axis of the cylinder relative to the axis of the crankshaft.
Offset (offsetting) is indicated by the symbol e.
A small offsetting (e < 0.03r) is provided to reduce the noise that occurs when the piston is placed
in the cylinder, and is achieved by shifting the bore axis of the hole for the piston pin relative to the
piston axis. In this case, kinematic calculations can be performed using the formulas for central crank
mechanism.
Offsetting within e = (0.1...0.4)r is used to reduce the difference in pressure of the piston on the
right and left sides of the cylinder, which gives a more uniform engine wear. In addition, the deaxial
mechanism is characterized by a lower piston speed near TDC than that of the central crank, thereby
improving the combustion process. At the same time, the forces of inertia of the reciprocating moving
masses of the deaxial crank mechanism are somewhat higher than the central one. Minor offsetting is
present in most V-type engines. The effect of this offsetting is insignificant and in practical
calculations formulas of the central crank mechanism are usually used.
Nowadays, offsetting, exceeding ɟ = 0,1r, is used only in engines with special kinematic schemes
(for example, in engines with a rhombic mechanism or in engines with parallel arrangement of each
pair of cylinders operating on one crank).
In V-type, W-type, and star-type engines, as well as in engines with parallel cylinders located,
mechanisms with articulated-type connecting rods are used. A schematic diagram of a crank mechanism
with articulated-type connecting rod is shown in figure 3.1c. One connecting rod in this mechanism is
pivotally connected directly to the crankshaft journal and is called the main one, and the second is
connected to the main connecting rod by means of a pin located on its head and is called trailed.
The system of main and trailed connecting rods is used on diesel engines D12, etc. In such a
system of connecting rods high rigidity of the crank head of the main connecting rod is noted;
However, pistons articulated with the main and trailed connecting rods have an unequal stroke, since
the axis of the crank head of the trailing connecting rod during operation describes an ellipse, the
greater semi-axis of which is greater than the radius of the crank. In D12 engines, the difference in
pistons is 6.7 mm. The kinematics and dynamics of these mechanisms are described in sufficient detail
in the special literature; consideration of this issue is beyond the scope of this course project.

Figure 3.1 – Schemes of the crank mechanism of internal combustion engines;

a – central; b – displaced (deaxial); c – articulated-type connecting rod

In the calculations for the crank mechanism of the central type (Fig. 3.1a) the ratio between the
displacement of the piston S x and the angle of rotatLRQRIWKHFUDQNVKDIWijLVGHWHUPLQHGDVIROORZV:
35
 S x =Ⱥ'Ⱥ=Ⱥ'Ɉ-ȺɈ= (Ⱥ'ȼ'+ȼ'Ɉ)-(Ⱥɋ+ɋɈ). (3.2)

Segment Ⱥ'ȼ' is equal to the length of the connecting rod L ɲ , and the segment ȼ'Ɉ - the radius of
the crank r. With this in mind, as well as expressing the segments AC and CO through the product L ɲ
and r, respectively, by the cosines of the angles ȕ and ij, we get

ª O º
Sx Lø  r   Lø cos E  r cos M r «1  cos M  1  cos E» . (3.3)
¬ 4 ¼

From the ACB and OCB triangles we find CB = AB sinȕ OB sinijRr L ɲ sinȕ UVLQijIURPZKHUe
r
sin E sin M O sin M . (3.4)
Lø

7KHH[SUHVVLRQLQFOXGHVFRVȕ. Express this function through the sine

cos E 1  sin 2 M 1  O2 sin 2 M . (3.5)

We expand the expression (3.5) in a row with the help of Newton's binomial, and we get

O2 O4 O6
cos E 1  sin M  sin M  sin 6 M  .... .
2 4
(3.6)
2 8 16

For practical calculations, the required accuracy is fully provided by the first two terms of the
binomial LHWKHIXQFWLRQFRVȕLVH[SUHVVHGLQWHUPVRIVLQijDVIROORZV:

O2
cos E 1  sin 2 M. . (3.7)
2
Given that
1
sin 2 M 1  cos 2M ,
2
expression (3.7) can be written in the form:
O2
cos E 1  1  cos 2M . (3.8)
2
Substituting (3.8) into equation (3.3), we obtain an approximate expression for determining the
piston movement:

ª O º
Sx r «1  cos M  1  cos 2M» . (3.9)
¬ 4 ¼
Differentiating equation (3.9) in time, we obtain an equation for determining the piston speed:
dS x dS x dM dM § O ·
W r ¨ sin M  sin 2M ¸ . (3.10)
dt dM dt dt © 2 ¹
In the kinematic analysis of a crank mechanism, it is considered that the engine speed is constant.
In this case:
dM Sn
Ȧ= = (3.11)
dt 30

where Ȧ – crankshaft angular speed, s-1;

n – engine speed, min -1.
36
 In view of (3.11), equation (3.10) takes the form
§ O ·
W rZ¨ sin M  sin 2M ¸ . (3.12)
© 2 ¹

Differentiating (3.12) in time, we obtain an expression for determining the acceleration of the
piston
rZ2 cos M  O cos 2M .
dW
J (3.13)
dt

The results of kinematic analysis are filled in the table according to the sample given below
(Table 3.1). Calculations are performed in increments of 15 ° crank degrees. According to the tabular
data, graphs of the piston movement (S x ), piston speeds (W) and its acceleration (J) should plot on
graph paper. On the speed diagram put the value of the average speed, which is taken from the thermal
calculation.
Table 3.1 – Results of crank mechanism kinematic calculation

Angle of crank shaft Piston displacement Piston speed Piston acceleration

rotation (ij) (S x ), cm (W), m/s (J), m/s2

0 0,0000 0,0000 860,95

15 0,4739 2,8170 813,70
30 1,8438 5,3280 679,97
45 3,9633 7,2784 481,98

3.3 Dynamic calculation of an engine

When constructing the force scheme, the initial force is the specific total force Ɋ ɫ , acting on the
piston pin (cross head pin) - this is the algebraic sum of the pressure forces of the gases Ɋ ɝ acting on
the piston crown, and the specific inertia forces of masses of parts P j moving reciprocating,

Ɋɫ = Ɋɝ + Pj . (3.14)

Let us consider in more detail the effect of gas pressure forces on the piston Ɋ ɝ of inertial forces of
moving masses P j .
The values of the force from the gas pressure in the cylinder Ɋ ɝ , is determined from the expression:

Ɋ ɝ = (ɪ i - ɪ 0 ) F ɩ , (3.15)

here ɪ i – the current value of pressure in the working cylinder (determined from the Sij diagram based
on the results of the thermal calculation of the engine, see section 2.4), ɆPɚ;
F ɩ – piston area, mm2;
ɪ 0 – ambient pressure, (0,1 ɆPɚ).

The specific inertia force of crank mechanism details moving reciprocating is determined from the
dependence

P j = – m j J; (3.16)

where J – acceleration of reciprocating moving masses, m/s2,

m j – mass of parts performing reciprocating motion.
To simplify the dynamic calculation, the actual crank mechanism is replaced with a dynamically
37
 equivalent system of concentrated masses m j and m R (Fig. 3.6).

m j =m ɩ +m ɲɩ , (3.17)
m R – performing rotational motion.

m R =m ɤ +m ɲɤ , (3.18)
where m ɩ – mass of piston set, kg

m ɩ =m ɩɨɪɲ +m ɩɤ +m ɩɩ +m cɤ +m ɩɲ +m ɩɨɩ +m ɩɨɥ , (3.19)

where m ɩɨɪɲ – piston mass;
m ɩɤ – piston rings mass;
m ɩɩ – piston pin mass;
m cɤ – mass of piston pin circlips, respectively;
m ɩɲ – piston rod mass;
m ɩɨɩ – cross head pin mass;
m ɩɨɥ – guide shoe mass (guide shoes).
In formula 3.19, only the masses of parts provided by the engine design are substituted.
The mass of the connecting rod group m ɲ is replaced by a system of two masses m ɲɩ and m ɲɤ

m ɲ = m ɲɩ + m ɲɤ , (3.20)

where m ɲɩ – part of the mass of the connecting rod group, referred to the center of the upper head of the
connecting rod and moving reciprocating along with the piston;
m ɲɤ – part of the mass of the connecting rod group, referred to the center of the lower (crank) head and
moving rotationally along with the center of the crankshaft connecting rod journal;
m ɤ – unbalanced part of the crankshaft crank, kg.
The mass m j is concentrated at point A, the mass m R is concentrated at point B (Fig. 3.6).

Figure 3.6 – Dual mass scheme of crank mechanism

For a given prototype and the main dimensions of the engine determine the mass of parts of the
crank mechanism, moving reciprocating and rotational. Data on mass of piston sets are taken from
prototypes or determined by the formulas:

m ɲɩ = 0,275 m ɲ ; (3.21)

m ɲɤ = 0,725 m ɲ . (3.22)
38
 In addition to the mass of the connecting rod m ɲɤ , the rotating parts include: mass of the crank
web, reduced to the axis of the crank journal (Fig. 3.7).

Figure 3.7 – Speculation of crankshaft rotating mass

That is:

m R =m ɲɤ + m ɲɲ + 2m ɳ ȡr). (3.23)

Wherein:
Sd øø2
m ɲɲ = løø J , (3.24)
4

m ɳ =d ɳ b ɳ l ɳ Ȗ (3.25)

ZKHUHȖ– specific gravity of the crankshaft material, kg/m3;

d ɲɲ – diameter of the connecting rod journal, m;
l ɲɲ – length of the connecting rod journal, m;
d ɳ ,b ɳ ,l ɳ - geometrical dimensions of the web.
In the absence of prototype data, the design values of the missing values can be taken in
accordance with the averaged values.
In the absence of data on the engine being designed, it is necessary to specify the constructive
masses of the piston and connecting rod groups, using statistical data. The selection criteria for one or
another piston material are presented in figures 3.8 and 3.9
Compliance of the masses selected in this way can be checked by the value of the maximum inertia
force

Pjmax =-m j rȦ2Ȝ.

The value Pjmax must be within:

Gasoline engines:
n < 4000 min-1 (140…180) kN
n > 4000 min-1 (160…240) kN
Diesel engines:
n > 2000 min-1 (60…140) kN.

39
 We decompose the force Ɋ ɫ (fig. 3.10), acting along the axis of the cylinder, into two components:
- horizontal (guide) force on the crankshaft N, perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder

N=Ɋ c WJȕ (3.26)

- force S directed along the axis of the connecting rod.

S=Ɋ c FRVȕ. (3.27)

Let us transfer the force S along the line of its action to the center of the connecting rod journals of
crank mechanism (S' = S) and decompose it into two components:
- normal force K' directed along the crank radius,

K'=Scos(ij+ȕ)=P ɫ (cos(ij+ȕ)/(cosȕ)), (3.28)

- tangential force T, tangent to the circumference of the crank radius

Ɍ=SVLQijȕ P ɫ VLQijȕFRVȕ (3.29)

We transfer the normal force Ʉ' along the line of its action to the center of the shaft and denote Ʉ''
(Ʉ''= Ʉ'). Apply two equal and oppositely directed forces T' and T'' (T''=T') then a pair of forces T and
T'' on the arm r will create a moment called torsional (Ɇ ɤɪɭɬ ).
Torque is transmitted through the crankshaft to the flywheel.

Ɇ ɤɪɭɬ =Ɍ5=Ɋ ɫ rVLQijȕFRVȕ)) §Ɋ ɫ rVLQij – ȜVLQij. (3.30)

Forces K" and T" can be folded; their resultant S" equal to the force S acting along the connecting
rod loads the main (frame) shaft bearings. The force S" can be decomposed into two components: N",
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, and P ", acting along the axis of the cylinder.
Forces N" and N form a pair of forces, the moment of which is called overturning (Ɇ ɨɩɪɨɤ ) and acts
on the fixed parts of the crank mechanism. Moment Ɇ ɨɩɪɨɤ is directed against the torque and in
accordance with the equilibrium condition of the moving parts of the mechanism as a whole in
magnitude is equal to the torque:

Ɇ ɨɩɪɨɤ = Nh = P ɫ tgȕ r(sin(ij+ȕ)/(sinȕ)) = Nr (sin(ij+ȕ)/(cosȕ)). (3.31)

40
 a b

Figure 3.10 - Diagram of the forces and moments of the crosshead (a) and trunk engine crank
mechanism (b) operating in the engine

The centrifugal inertia force directed along the crank radius also acts in the crank mechanism:

Ʉ= – m R rȦ2 . (3.32)

As already noted, to determine the force Ɋ ɝ , pressure values are read from the unfolded indicator
diagram in increments of 10-15 ° and substituted into formula 3.15. The values thus obtained are filled
in table 3.2. Further, Ɋ j . values are calculated. Taking into account the signs of the action of the forces
Ɋ ɝ and Ɋ j , the total force Ɋ ɫ = Ɋ ɝ + Ɋ j is determined.
7KHDQJOHRIGHIOHFWLRQRIWKHFRQQHFWLQJURGȕFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHDQJOHRIURWDWLRQRIWKHFUDQN
ijFDQEH IRXQGIURPWKHH[SUHVVLRQȕ DUFVLQȜVLQij
In the same way, the forces S, N, K, T are calculated taking into account the sign (direction of
action). From the tabular data, diagrams are plotted on graph paper A1, placing them so that they fill at
least 70 % of the sheet space.

Table 3.2 - Dynamic calculation results

Forces which acting in crank/connecting-rod mechanism
ij M ɤɪ ; N
Ɋɝ; N Pj; N Pɫ; N N; N S; N T; N K; N
×m
0 40,63 11569,06 11609,69 1493,02 11705,30 4322,66 -10877,90 477,65
15 -27,51 -18785,13 -18812,63 -1284,01 -18856,40 -6109,33 -17839,28 -675,08
30 -35,62 -15697,74 -15733,36 -2087,83 -15871,28 -9674,79 -12581,57 -1069,06
45 -35,62 -11126,98 -11162,60 -2113,55 -11360,93 -9387,66 -6398,65 -1037,34

41
 SECTION 4

STRENGTH CALCULATION OF PISTON GROUP DETAILS

OF MARINE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

4.1 Working conditions and materials for the manufacture of a piston group

The details of the piston group of four-stroke diesel engines include the piston, piston pin and
piston rings. In the two-stroke engines, the piston group includes a piston, a piston rod, a cross head
pin and guide shoes.

4.1.1 Piston
The piston receives the force of gas pressure and transmits it through the piston rod and connecting
rod to the crankshaft. In the trunk engines, the piston through the piston rings transmits pressure to the
walls of the cylinder. The bottom of the piston head is involved in creating the volume of the
combustion chamber, working in the zone of high temperatures. As a result, significant mechanical
and thermal stresses occur in the piston material. A large temperature difference between the bottom
surface of the piston on the side of the combustion chamber and on the opposite side leads to the
appearance of compressive stresses in hot fibers and tensile stresses in cold fibers.
Material for the manufacture of pistons must have high mechanical strength and heat resistance,
good thermal conductivity and low values of the coefficient of linear expansion. The material of
pistons of diesel engines of the trunk type must also possess good antifriction qualities and wear
resistance.
Materials for the manufacture of pistons are cast iron, steel and light alloys.
Cast iron pistons are cast from gray and high-strength cast iron. Cast iron doped with vanadium,
copper, titanium and chromium additives are used.
The strength limits of gray cast irons vary little to 400...450 °C. When this temperature is exceeded,
the strength decreases sharply. In addition, there is cracking of the bottom.
High-strength cast iron retains its mechanical properties to higher temperatures.
The alloying of cast iron with chrome and molybdenum makes it possible to bring the temperature
of the piston head to 500...550 °C.
Aluminum alloys (especially for high-speed diesel engines) are widely used for the manufacture of
pistons. Compared with cast iron, they have several advantages:
- ORZHUGHQVLW\ȡ J/cm3), this allows reducing the piston mass and inertial forces, and
therefore speeding up the shaft rotation frequency;
- higher thermal conductivity, which makes it possible to reduce the operating temperature of the
bottom by 100 ... 150 °C compared to uncooled cast iron pistons;
- the ability to manufacture billet pistons more efficient ways with minimal allowances for
machining.
At the same time, aluminum alloys have several disadvantages:
- high linear expansion coefficients force to increase the gaps between the piston and the liner;
- less wear resistance than cast iron;
- lower mechanical properties;
- relatively high cost.
Casting aluminum alloys and wrought alloys are used for the manufacture of pistons.
The main properties of aluminum alloys used for the manufacture of pistons are given in table 4.1.
In recent years, considerable attention has been paid to composite pistons, in which the piston head
is made of heat-resistant material (of special cast iron or steel).
However, steel pistons are used very rarely. Conducted research on the application for the
manufacture of pistons of titanium alloys.

4.1.2 Piston rings

Sealing (compression) rings serve to prevent gas from escaping from the combustion chamber into
the crankcase and to remove some of the heat to the cooling water. They work in very difficult
42
conditions, especially the first ring. The rings perform a reciprocating motion, they become very hot
from contact with hot gases and the heated wall of the cylinder, as well as from friction. The work of
friction of piston rings accounts for about 40...50 % of all mechanical losses of the engine.

Table 4.1 – Aluminum alloys main properties

Mechanical properties Can work at temperature
Alloy
ɨ
ı ɜ ɆPɚ į5, % ɇȼɆPɚ ɋ
ȺɅ 196 0,5 932 300
ȺɅȼ 127…196 - 785…980 300
ȺɅ 118…167 4…5 - 175…300
ȼ 206 0,8 736 350
ȼȺ 206 0,8 638 250…300
ȺɄ 206…353 10…14 1030 150…250
ȺɄ 156…353 10 1080 150…350
ȺɄ-1 235…363 12…19 980…1177 150…300
Ⱦ 314 16…20 980 150…300
Ⱦ 373 5…6 980 150…275

The temperature of the upper ring reaches 350...450 °ɋ7KHDYHUDJHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHUHPDLQLQJ

rings ranges from 200...250 °C.
Due to the high temperature, the mechanical strength of the rings is reduced, and oil coking occurs.
Especially greatly increased the temperature of the rings when they break through the products of
combustion.
Oil scraper rings remove excess oil from the cylinder walls and dump it into the crankcase or sub-
piston cavity, preventing the oil from being thrown into the combustion chamber. Oil scraper rings
work under less stressful conditions.
Material for the manufacture of piston rings must have:
- sufficient mechanical strength at high temperatures;
- high wear resistance;
- low coefficient of friction under conditions of high temperature and insufficient lubrication
(compression rings).
For the manufacture of piston rings most often used cast iron, as well as modified cast iron. The
material of the piston rings should have a Brinell hardness of 140...200 MPa more than the hardness of
the working surface of the cylinder liner.
In engines with increased liter capacity, rings are made of special alloyed cast irons. In high-
tension engines with a limited service life, rings made of steels are used. In this case, the walls of the
cylinder must be nitride. Steel rings have a long service life, but more expensive to manufacture.
To improve wear resistance, porous chrome plating of the working surface of the upper
compression rings is widely practiced.
A number of leading manufacturers of marine engines are making attempts to manufacture metal-
ceramic and metal-graphite rings with self-lubricating properties and wear resistance at high
temperatures.

4.1.3 Piston pins and cross head pins

Piston pin in the trunk diesel engines connects the piston with the connecting rod. In modern
constructions, a floating pin is used, which is not fixed in the sockets, can be rotated around its axis,
which ensures its even wear. In a crosshead type low-speed diesel engines, a piston rod with a
connecting rod is connected by means of a cross head, which is simultaneously the axis of the hinge
(main joint) and the support for fastening the crosshead sliders. In four-stroke engines, the piston pin
works with alternating loads, in two-stroke crosshead pin - with a load close to the pulsating one. In
addition, these parts experience a thermal load from the heat transferred from the piston head, the heat
generated by friction of the pin on the surface of the piston boss and the head of the connecting rod,
43
from friction of the guide shoes on the guides (parallels).
During operation, the medium- and high-speed diesel engine pin performs a complex movement
(reciprocating), which makes it almost impossible to provide it with liquid lubricant. Due to semi-fluid
friction, pin wear is increased.
The hard working conditions of the fasteners cause increased demands on the material for their
manufacture. The main ones are as follows: high resistance to shock loading (viscous core), high
strength, high wear resistance (solid surface layer).
These conditions are satisfied by various carbon and alloyed steels after appropriate chemical and
heat treatment (nitriding, cementation, heat treatment with tempering). For the manufacture of
crossheads of low-speed diesel engines, low-carbon steels of grades 15 and 20 are usually used. In
high-speed engines, low-carbon alloyed steels of grades 20X, 15XM, 12XM3A, and others have
received the greatest use for the manufacture of piston pins.
Piston pins and cross head pins of low-carbon steels after the main machining are subjected to
cementation to a depth of 0.5..1.5 mm, then hardening with a low tempering and surface grinding is
carried out.
Medium carbon steels of grades 40, 4ɏɏɇɏɎȺVXEMHFWHGWRVXUIDFHKDUGHQLQJDQG
DOVRVWHHOVRIJUDGHɏɆɘȺVXEMHFWHGWRQLWULGLQJWDEOHDUHDOVRXVHGIRUWKHPDnufacture of
piston fingers.

Table 4.2 – Heat treatment of steel piston pins

Heat treatment, ɨɋ
Heat hardening
Carburization

Surface heat
Tempering

Tempering
Carbon content,

hardening
Steel grade ı ɜ ɆPɚ
%

ɏ 0,09…0,15 930 600 870 180 - 735

ɏ 0,18…0,24 920 - 870 200 - 786
2ɏȽɊ 0,18…0,24 920 - 870 180 - 980
ɏɇɁȺ 0,09…0,16 930 660 800 170 - 932
18ɏɇɆȺ 0,19…0,24 930 - 870 220 - 1128
ɏɎȺ0ɏɇ 0,46…0,54 - - 870 640 930 1080

Materials of parts of the piston group of some diesel engines are given in table 4.3.

Table 4.3 – Materials for the manufacture of the piston group of ship diesel engines
Piston Piston pin Piston ring
Diesel designation
Material, ıɜ, ıɜ, ıɜ,
Material Material
(mass, kg) ɆPɚ ɆPɚ ɆPɚ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6(8)NVD48AU Aluminum
Ⱥl4, (55) 196 4 compression and
ɏ 786 2 oil scraper rings 450
6(8)NVD48U Cast iron 24, 450 cast iron ɋɑ24
(85)
Cast iron 5 compression and
6L275 ɋɑ, (58) 450 20ɏ 786 2 oil scraper rings 450
cast iron ɋɑ24
44
 Aluminum
4 compression and
6L160PNS Ⱥl1, (95,4) 206
ɏ 786 2 oil scraper rings 450
Cast iron 450
cast iron ɋɑ24
ɋɑ
4 compression and
8NVD36 Cast iron
450 ɏ 786 2 oil scraper rings 450
ɋɑ24, (45)
cast iron ɋɑ24
4 compression and
6NVD26A Aluminum
206 - - 2 oil scraper rings 450
Ⱥl1
cast iron ɋɑ24
3 compression and
6(8)VD26/20A Aluminum
206 - - 2 oil scraper rings 450
Ⱥl1, (23)
cast iron ɋɑ24
4 compression and
6NVD24 Special cast
353 ɏ 786 2 oil scraper rings 353
iron
Special cast iron
5 compression and
6SB-350PN Special cast
353 20ɏ 786 2 oil scraper rings 450
iron
cast iron ɋɑ24

4.2 Strength calculation of piston

4.2.1 Designing dimensions and shape of pistons

By design, pistons of trunk engines and crosshead engines are distinguished. They can be uncooled
and cooled (oil, water).
The shape of the piston and its dimensions are designed in such a way that a satisfactory removal
of heat perceived by it is ensured.
When designing, it is necessary to strive to obtain the simplest geometric shape (Fig. 4.1, 4.2)

Figure 4.1 – Shape of the piston casing of the trunk engine. a – conical head, b – stepped head, c –
head and piston skirt are tapered, d – side surface of the piston has a curvilinear profile with a
maximum diameter at the height of bosses

45
 Figure 4.2 – The design of the pistons of modern two-stroke diesel engines with a uniflow
scavenging

For approximate sizes, we assume that the piston has a cylindrical shape with an external diameter
equal to the diameter of the cylinder of the engine D.
In solid pistons of the trunk engines (Fig. 4.3), the head 1 after the lower sealing ring 4 passes into
the guide (trunk) part 2.
In two-stroke engines, the design of the piston may differ significantly depending on the
scavenging scheme. For engines with cross scavenging the piston has a long trunk, which acts as a
timing valve. In engines with uniflow scavenging there is no need to prevent gases from flowing from
the charge receiver to the exhaust, and therefore the pistons on such engines make a small height, in
fact such a piston consists of one head (Fig. 4.2).
The piston crown (head) contains grooves for sealing rings (from three to six). The upper ring,
working in the most difficult conditions, it is desirable to have farther from the bottom of the piston.
The distance from the upper edge of the piston to the groove of the first piston ring l is calculated
by the relations:
for heavy weight marine diesel engine:
l = (1...4)į, mm, (4.1)

where į – piston bottom thickness, mm

for lightweight diesel:
l = (0,6…2,įmm . (4.2)

To protect the upper ring from overheating, sometimes a circular groove 5 is made above it, which
serves as a thermal barrier.
The pLVWRQ ERWWRP WKLFNQHVV į GHSHQGV RQ LWV PDWHULDO GHVLJQ IHDWXUHV FRROLQJ PHthod, the
presence or absence of ribs on the inside of the bottom.
For uncooled cast iron and aluminum piston

į = (0,035…0,06)d, mm , (4.3)

where d – cylinder bore, mm.

For the cooled piston from cast iron and aluminum alloys

į «0,08)dɦɦ (4.4)
46
 Figure 4.3 - Sketch of a two-stroke crosshead piston (left) and a four-stroke trunk engine (right):
1 – piston head (crown); 2 – skirt (trunk part); 3 – piston boss; 4 – grooves for piston rings;
5 – thermal barrier groove

The transition from the bottom to the walls is formed with large radii of curvature, which ensures a
more uniform distribution of heat load in the sections of the piston head.
The configuration of the piston head is determined mainly by the mixture formation system and the
scavenge system. During volumetric mixing and direct fuel injection, the bottom of the piston has a
configuration that corresponds to the number, size and shape of the fuel jets.
The height (length) of the piston head ɇ ɝ is determined mainly on the basis of the distance l
indicated above, the number and height of the piston rings.

ɇ ɝ = (0,35…0,65)d, mm (4.5)

The total height (length) of the piston H depends on the type of engine, tact, degree of rapidity. For
crosshead engines with uniflow scavenging, the overall height of the piston is equal to the height of the
head. For two-stroke diesels with cross scavenging the piston height must be such that the trunk blocks
the inlet and discharge (or at least the exhaust) holes when the piston is in the TDC.
In low-speed diesel engines with uniflow scavenging ɇ ɝ = ɇ and is equal to:

ɇ = (0,85…1,4)d, mm. (4.6)

For medium-speed four-stroke diesel engines of the trunk type, the height of the piston is:

ɇ = (1,4…2,0)d, mm. (4.7)

In high-speed diesel engines, it decreases to:

ɇ = (0,8…1,7)d, mm. (4.8)

The piston pin axis is located between the middle of the piston trunk part and its center of gravity.
The distance between the axis of the finger and the lower edge of the piston can be determined by the
ratio:
ɇ ɩ = (0,30…0,75)d, mm. (4.9)

The wall thickness of the trunk part of the piston S 1 is:

47
 S 1 = (0,3...0,5)S, mm; (4.10)

where S – thickness of the cylindrical part of the piston crown, mm.

For four-stroke:
S = (0,05...0,08)d, mm. (4.11)

For two-stroke
S = (0,25...0,35)d, mm. ɚ

The width of the groove of the sealing ring a is

ɚ = (0,5…1,0)ɜ, mm, (4.12)

where ɜ – radial thickness of the ring, mm

ɜ = (0,04…0,085)d, mm . (4.13)

The width of the jumper between the grooves d 1 is determined by the ratio:

d 1 = (1…1,3)ɜ, mm. (4.14)

4.2.2 Strength calculation of piston

In the process, the piston is under the influence of pressure forces of gases and high temperature.
As a result, mechanical and thermal stresses arise in it.
Mechanical stresses in the bottom of the piston reach the maximum value at the highest
combustion pressure ɪ z . Methods for the exact calculation of stresses so far are not meant by the
complexity and transience of the processes taking place. Therefore, the calculation is carried out
according to approximate calculated ratios. In this case, the bottom of the piston, which does not have
internal ribs, is considered as a plate of constant thickness, embedded along the contour and loaded
uniformly (Fig. 4.4).

Figure 4.4 – Piston fiction scheme

The largest stresses along the embedment contour in the radial direction ı ɯ are determined by the
equation:
3 r2
Vx [ ˜ ˜ 2 ˜ pz , ɆPɚ (4.15)
4 G

48
 where ȟ – coefficient taking into account the elasticity of the seal. With a tight seal, it is assumed to
be equal to one;
į – piston bottom thickness, mm;
ɪ z – maximum combustion pressure, MPa;
r – distance from the center of the plate to the pinching point, mm. r=(d-2S-2ɜ)/2 for a four-stroke
engine and r=(d-2S)/2 for a two-stroke.
Normal stresses in the tangential direction ı ɭ are determined by the equation:
3 r2
Vy P p z , ɆPɚ (4.16)
4 G2

where ȝ – Poisson's ratio taken for iron and steel 0.3, for aluminum alloys 0.26.

Since ı ɯ is larger than ı ɭ , further calculation of the strength of the piston bottom is carried out by
the value of ı ɯ .
ı ɯ and ı ɭ in the center of the bottom are smaller than the contour in size and equal to each other.
Their value is determined by the equation:
3 r2
ı xmin ıy 1  ȝ  2 pz , ɆPɚ (4.17)
8 į

Temperature stresses at the bottom of the piston arise from axial and radial temperature
differences. The heat load is determined by the amount of heat Q, abstracted to the coolant:

Q QN eɰ g eQɧ , kJ/h, (4.18)

where Ȟ – SURSRUWLRQRIWKHWRWDODPRXQWRIKHDWUHPRYHGWKURXJKWKHERWWRPȞ ZKHQ

FRROHGZLWKRLOȞ ZKHQFRROHGE\ZDWHUZLWKDSLVWRQ);
N eɰ – cylinder power, kW;
g e – specific effective fuel oil consumption, kg/(kW×h);
Q ɧ – low heat value of the fuel, kJ/kg.
The specific heat load is defined as:

Q
q , kJ/(m2×h), (4.19)
Fɩ

where F ɩ – piston bottom area, m2.

In four-stroke aspired diesel engines q = 315000…630000 kJ/(m2×h).
For an approximate calculation of temperature stresses at the periphery and in the center of the
bottom, the equation is used:
D˜ E q˜G
Vt ˜ ɆPɚ (4.20)
2 ˜ 1  P  O

where Į – coefficient of linear expansion, 1/°ɋ, used for pistons made of cast iron equal to 1.07×10-5,
and from aluminum alloys 2.2×10-5;
E – modulus of elasticity, MPa, taken for pistons made of cast iron equal to 9.8×104, and from
aluminum alloys 7.35×104;
ȝ– Poisson's ratio, equal to 0.3 cast iron and 0.26 aluminum alloy;
q – specific heat load, kJ/(m2×h);
Ȝ– coefficient of thermal conductivity, kJ/(m×h×°C), for cast iron it is equal to 189, for aluminum
alloy 609;
į– bottom thickness, m

49
 Next, the total mechanical and thermal stresses are determined, and a comparison with the
magnitude of permissible stresses is made.
Wherein
Vx  Vt d V . (4.21)

Since the stresses at the periphery of the bottom are larger than at the center, the stress value ı x for
the periphery is taken into account.
Allowable stress (MPa) for the bottoms of the pistons of various metals are equal to:
- for cast iron pistons 147...196;
- for steel 196...392;
- for aluminum alloys 78...117.

4.3 Strength calculation of piston pin (cross head pin)

The piston pin (crosshead pin) serves to transfer the pressure forces of gases from the piston to the
connecting rod and further to the crankshaft.
In four-stroke engines, the piston pin operates with alternating loads. In addition, it perceives a
significant heat load due to the transfer of heat from the piston head and the heat released during
friction of a finger from the connecting rod head and piston bosses. To ease the weight of the piston
pins have an internal drilling (Fig. 4.5).

Figure 4.5 – Installation scheme of the piston pin (left) and crosshead pin (right)

The dimensions of the piston pin (crosshead pin) are determined by the ratio depending on the
diameter of the piston (cylinder). For a two-stroke MICE, the calculation is carried out on the most
dangerous section, the articulation of the piston rod and the crosshead bearing (main connection).
The outer diameter of the pin is:
d ɩ 0,35...0,5d , mm , (4.22a)

The outer diameter of crosshead pin is:

dï 0,4...0,8d , mm , (4.22b)

The diameter of the inner hole of piston pin (crosshead pin):

do 0,4...0,7 d ɩ , mm. (4.23)

50
 The length of the bearing part of the piston pin (crosshead pin) l o can be approximately equal to the
length of the piston pin (crosshead pin) under the hub of the upper connecting rod head l ɲ (bearing
surface under the piston rod) or twice the part of the boss on which the piston pin (crosshead pin) l ɛ
rests.
That is lo | lɲ , or l o | 2 ˜ l ɛ .
For piston pin (cross member):

lɲ 0,33...0,45d . (4.24)

According to the scheme of Figure 4.5, the distance between the centers of the support parts of the
bosses (crosshead bearings) will be

l lɲ  lɛ . (4.25)

The total length of the piston pin (crosshead pin) is defined as

lɩ lɲ  2lɛ # 2lo # 2lɲ (4.26)

or

lɩ 0,8...0,87 d . (4.27)

The piston pin (crosshead pin) bends like a beam, lying on two supports, is subjected to shear
deformation, and its cross section can take the form of an oval.
When performing calculations, the pressure on the bearing surfaces of the bosses (crosshead
bearings) is first determined.

p z Sd 2
k ɆPɚ (4.28)
d ɩ lo 4

where ɪ z – maximum cycle pressure, MPa;

d ɩ – external diameter of the piston pin (crosshead pin), mm;
l o – length of the bearing part of the piston pin (crosshead pin), mm;
d – piston diameter, mm.

The found value of the specific load on the supporting surfaces should not exceed the value of
permissible values (table 4.4.)
The calculation of the piston pin (crosshead pin) for bending is performed by considering the pin as
a beam lying on two supports, loaded with a uniformly distributed load on the length l ɲ .
In this case, in low- and medium-speed diesel engines, bending stresses in a dangerous section are
determined by the equation

p z Sd 2 l  0,5lɲ
Vɢ ˜ ɆPɚ (4.29)
1,6d ɩ3 1  ɚ 4

where p z – maximum cycle pressure, MPa;

d n – outer diameter of the piston pin (crosshead pin), cm;
l – ɪɚɫɫɬɨɹɧɢɟɦɟɠɞɭɫɟɪɟɞɢɧɚɦɢɨɩɨɪɩɚɥɶɰɚɩɨɩɟɪɟɱɢɧɵɫɦ
l ɲ – length of the pin under the connecting rod sleeve (connecting rod), cm;
d – diameter of the piston, cm;
ɚ – the ratio of the internal diameter of pin d o to the external diameter d ɩ .

51
 do
ɚ .
dɩ
The obtained stresses values should not exceed the value allowed (table 4.5).
When calculating low-speed marine engine, the Kinasoshvili equation is used. According to this
scheme, the greatest bending stresses are in the middle of the pin.

pz lɩ  2l  1,5a ʌd 2
Vɢ
 
4,8 1  a 4 d ɩ
3 ɆPɚ (4.30)

where l n – full length of piston pin (crosshead pin), cm;

l –distance between the supports of the piston pin (crosshead pin), cm;
d – diameter of the piston, cm;

Table 4.4 – Permissible specific loads in MPa

ȼɜɟɪɯɧɟɣ In the piston bosses
ɝɨɥɨɜɤɟ Cast iron piston Aluminum alloy
Engine types Type of pin
ɲɚɬɭɧɚ, (without piston (without
ɛɪɨɧɡɚ ɛɚɛɛɢɬ sleeves) sleeves)
Marine, train and and
stationary medium- and
Floating- 1470…2450 3430…3920 2450…2940
low-speed diesel
- -
engines
Marine, train and and
stationary high-speed - 2450…3920 until 3140 until 2940
diesel engines

Light duty diesel 4900…7850 with

- 4900…8830 4900…7850
engines brass sleeves

Table 4.5 – Permissible bending stresses in MPa in the piston pin

Steel
Engines type Alloy 40ɏȺ, 20ɏ, 18ɏɇȼ,
Carbon 15, 20
12ɏɇɁȺ and other.
Stationary and marine low-speed diesel
78…88 -
engines
ɋɭɞɨɜɵɟɢɬɟɩɥɨɜɨɡɧɵɟɋɈȾɢȼɈȾ
Stationary and marine medium- and 118…147 147…245
high-speed diesel engines
Forced - 294…490

Stresses of the pin from the slice is determined by the equation:

pz ˜ S ˜ d 2
V ɫɪ , ɆPɚ, (4.31)
8˜ f

where f – pin cross-section, ɫm2.

The greatest shear stress on the neutral axis is determined by the equation

W max ˜

0,85 ˜ p z ˜ S ˜ d 2 1  ɚ  ɚ 2 
ɆPɚ (4.32)
d ɩ2 ˜ 4 1  ɚ4
52
 Permissible stresses for alloyed steel are 98...196 MPa. For carbon steel 49 MPa.
An analysis of the breakdowns of the pin of medium- and high-speed engines in various sections
shows that, in addition to stresses ı ɢ and IJ max , it is necessary to determine the stresses ı ɨ from
ovalization that occur on the inner surface of the section of the finger.

Vo
pz ˜ S ˜ d 2 ª
˜ «0,174 ˜
1  2ɚ  ˜ 1  ɚ   0,636 º ˜ Ⱥ
lɩ ˜ d ɩ ˜ 4 ¬ 1  ɚ2 ˜ ɚ 1  ɚ »¼
ɆPɚ (4.33)

Coefficient A takes into account the effect of the stiffness of the pin on the deformation and is
determined by the equation
A >1,5  15 ˜ a  0,4 @.
3
(4.34)

In four-stroke diesel engines with an outer diameter of a finger from 30 to 100 mm and a ratio
d/d o § 0.3...0.7, the highest stresses ı ɨmax vary from 60 to 170 MPa.
The deformation of the ovalization is calculated by the equation;

3
0,09 ˜ p z ˜ S ˜ d 2 § 1  a ·
'd max ˜¨ ¸ ˜ Ⱥ , cm. (4.35)
E ˜ lo ˜ 4 ©1 a ¹

For high-speed diesel engines, the ǻd max value is within 0.02...0.05 mm, for medium-speed diesel
engines they can reach 0.05...0.13 mm.

4.4. Strength calculation of piston rings

Piston rings are divided into compression (sealing) and oil scraper.
The former serve to seal the combustion chamber, create a temperature in the combustion chamber
at the end of the compression stroke, which is sufficient for self-ignition of the fuel, as well as for
removing part of the heat from the piston head to the cooling water.
Oil scraper rings protect the combustion chamber from oil entering it from the “cylinder mirror”.
The designs of the sealing rings are varied in the shape of the cross-section and the lock (Fig. 4.6
and 4.7)

ɚ b c
ɨ
(0,5…6,0) 45

d e į

h į

Figure 4.6 - The design of the sealing piston ring. a, b - symmetrical rectangular with a tapered
front cut; c, d - twisting with an asymmetrical section; e - wedge-shaped (trapezoid).

53
 In practice, the most often used forms are rings a and b in figure 4.5. They are the most simple to
manufacture and more durable.
Rings with a tapered cut c or internal groove d increase the specific pressure on the wall of the
cylinder liner, which contributes to the fastest run-in rings. This property is especially important when
working with nitrated, slowly running-on, cylinder liners.
Wedge-shaped (trapezoidal) e rings have a lateral component of the gas pressure, increasing the
pressure of the ring to the cylinder liner. The sharp edge contributes to a better cleaning of the cylinder
liner “mirror” from oil. Such rings are less prone to burning and are common in forced-type diesel
engines.
The presence of a lock provides the possibility of laying the ring in the groove and, with certain
elastic properties of the material, ensures that the ring is firmly pressed against the “mirror” of the
cylinder liner. In practice, several types of locks have been used: with a straight cut, with an oblique
cut at a 45 ° angle and “overlap” – figure 4.6. The most common are the first two types of locks as the
most simple and durable. Locks “overlap” in have an increased sealing ability, but less durable and are
used mainly in low-speed engines.
The structures of the oil scraper rings are also very diverse. In the progress of work, they
experience less mechanical and thermal loads than sealing rings. Therefore, the sealing rings are
usually subjected to strength calculation.
In order to provide the necessary strength, a sufficiently high durability, and effective work, the
rings should have quite definite dimensions. Their value depends on the diameter of the cylinder, the
degree of thermal stress of its parts, the frequency of rotation of the shaft, etc.

f
ɚ d e

b Û ȡ

c
S

Figure 4.7 – Forms of locks of sealing rings: a – straight; b – oblique; c – overlap;

d – ring in working condition (gap S), e – ring in free state (gap f)

The radial thickness of the ring d (Fig. 4.5d) is determined by the ratio

§ 1 1 ·
ɜ ¨ ... ¸ ˜ d , mm. (4.36)
© 25 35 ¹

The stresses in the ring depend on the thickness of the ring. The limit of increase ɜ are the greatest
stress when putting the ring on the piston.
The height of the ring h with a rectangular cross section does not affect the magnitude of the
stresses.
It is advisable to use relatively low rings, they provide less friction losses, rather, they are running.
For low- and medium-speed diesel engines

h = (0,5...1,0)ɜ. (4.37)

54
 For high-speed diesel engine

h = (0,3...0,6)ɜ. (4.38)

The size of the gap in the lock has a great influence on the magnitude of the stress:
- gap in the free state f (Fig. 4.6)

f = (0,12...0,1)d, mm (4.39)

- a gap in the lock after installation in the cylinder S

S = (0,004...0,006)d, mm. (4.40)

The amount of movement of the ends of the cut ring when installed in the piston groove f' is
defined as:

f' = f – S. (4.41)

The deformation of the ring when putting it on the piston f" is determined by the ratio:

f" = 8ɜ– f'. (4.42)

Given this, you can determine the bending stresses in the cross section of the end opposite to the
lock:
0,425 ˜ E f /
V max
/
2
˜ , Ɇɉɚ
MPa, (4.43)
§ d · ɜ
¨  1¸
© ɜ ¹

where ȿ – modulus of elasticity of the material of the ring, for cast iron ȿ = 80930 ɆPɚ
or
f/
V max
/
# 3,4 ˜ 104 ˜ 2
, Ɇɉɚ
MPa. (4.44)
§d ·
ɜ ˜ ¨  1¸
©ɜ ¹

Bending stresses when putting the ring on the piston are defined as

0,425 ˜ E f //
V max
//
2
˜ , Ɇɉɚ
MPa. (4.45)
§d · ɜ
¨  1¸
©ɜ ¹

In modern diesels, bending stresses lie within:

V max
/
| 127...176 ɆPɚ,

V max
//
| 196...245 MPa.

55
 SECTION 5

EXECUTION OF EXPLANATORY NOTE

The explanatory note of the course project is executed on one side of a sheet of white paper of A4
format (210 × 297 mm). in form 2 and 2a according to DSTU GOST 2.104: 2006. Course project can
be handwritten, preferably with black ink (paste), with letters and numbers at least 2.5 mm high. In
coordination with the teacher, the note can be processed in a computer set at the rate of 30...33 lines on
a page with 60...70 characters in a line. This requirement corresponds to the font Times New Roman
14 pt, with one and a half interval between the lines.
Volume of course project is 60-70 printed or 70-80 manuscript pages, without applications.
Coursework includes: 1. Title page. 2. Contents (table of contents). 3. List of abbreviations and
symbols – nomenclature (if necessary). 4. Introduction. 5. Main part. 6. Conclusions. 7. List of
references. 8. Application (if necessary).
In the course work necessary to concisely, logically and arguments express the content and
obtained results of research, avoid common phrases, unsubstantiated assertions, tautology and
distortion of facts. When writing a course project a cadet must necessarily refer on the authors and
sources from which borrowed materials or individual results. In the case of the borrowed material
without reference on the author and the source, the course project is not allowed to defend. Course
project, usually present in printed form by using computers, in soft or hardcover.
The title page is considered the first sheet of the explanatory note.
The table of contents of the explanatory note is laid out after the sheet of the task. On the first page
of the table of contents, the basic inscription on form 2 is filled out. On subsequent pages, the basic
inscription on form 2a is filled out. Numbering sheets produce in the lower right corner.
With the help of Microsoft Office Word software, following the following rules. If necessary,
sheets of A3 format (297 × 420 mm) may be used. The font for document designation is chosen by
Times New Roman, size is 14, line spacing is 1.5. The document page should contain up to 28 ... 30
lines of text, 60 ... 65 characters per line. Aligning the main text of a document is "in width". The
indentation should be 12.5 mm. The distance from the frame to the text at the beginning and end of the
lines should be at least 3 mm. The distance from the top and bottom lines of the text to the upper and
lower borders - not less than 10 mm. To comply with these requirements, the following fields should
be set: left 30 mm, right 15 mm, upper 15 mm, lower 25 mm. The frame on a sheet is placed with the
help of appropriate computer programs, typographically or manually punched with a simple pencil.
The explanatory note is divided into sections and subsections, and if necessary - into paragraphs
and subparagraphs. The numbering of sections, subsections, paragraphs and sub-paragraphs is denoted
by Arabic numerals, separated by dots. Each section begins with a new sheet. The name of sections is
written in capital letters, subsections - lower case (except the first). Word wrap in headlines is not
allowed. There is no dot at the end of the headings. Underline headings or color inks are not allowed.
The name of sections and subsections should correspond to the content.
When placing the text of the explanatory note is recommended to observe distances:
from the frame to the borders at the beginning of the lines – not less than 5 mm; at the end of the
lines – at least 3 mm;
from the frame to the top or bottom line of the text – not less than 10 mm;
from the heading to the subsequent text and between the headings of the section and subsection –
10 mm;
between the text and the subsequent heading – 15 mm.
The abbreviation of words in the text and captions under the drawings is not allowed, with the
exception of the generally accepted, established by GOST 7.11-2004 and GOST 7.12-93.
All illustrations in the text are numbered in Arabic numerals within this section. The word “Figure”
is written in full, followed by the sequence number of the section and through the point the sequence
number of the figure (Figure 2.1 -), then the name of the picture is written with a hyphen with a capital
letter, there is no dot at the end of the name. Short names are centered, long justified with a red line.
Figure captions are placed under the title of the picture on the next line, after which they leave a blank
line and continue the text of the note.
56
 Digital material should be compiled in tabular form. If there are several tables, they are numbered
in Arabic numerals within this section without the ʋ sign. The word “Table” and the sequence number
(Table 1.1 -) are written before the heading of the table without abbreviations; a dot at the end of the
name is not put. Short names are centered, long justified with a red line. When transferring a table to
another sheet, its head is repeated and above it writes in the upper right corner “Continuation of table
1.1”.
Diagonal division of the table head is not allowed. The height of the rows of the table should be at
least 8 mm. Figures in columns of tables should be arranged so that the classes of numbers are one
below the other. Numeric values in one column must have the same number of decimal places.
The formulas are first written in general form, followed by numerical values after the sign, and
then transformations and calculations are performed. Formulas are centered and separated from the
text by a blank line at the top and bottom.
At the end of the explanatory note should list the sources used. References to the source in the text
of the explanatory note should be given in the form of numbers according to the list enclosed in square
brackets (for example [1]).
The graphic part of the work is carried out in accordance with DSTU ISO 128-1: 2005. on sheets of
A1 format. If necessary, a graphic display of the calculation results can be presented in an explanatory
note, after appropriate calculations on A4 sheets or in the graphic part as an application on A1 sheets.
When building drawings, it is allowed to use specialized computer formats, of which AutoCAD and
Compass-3D are recommended.
When constructing graphic materials carried out according to the results of calculations, it is
allowed to use specialized computer programs, of which Excel and MatCAD are recommended.

57
 RECOMMENDED LITERATURE

1. Babicz J. Wärtsilä Encyclopedia of ship technology. – Helsinki, Wärtsilä corporation, 2nd

ed., 2015. – 659 p.
2. Gokhale V., Nanda N. Marine Engineering Knowledge for Junior Engineers. – Mumbai,
Engee Enterprises, 3rd ed. , 1999. – 172 p.
3. Marcos F.G. Modern Marine Engineers Handbook and Review Guide. – 191 p.
4. Woodyard D. Pounder’s Marine Diesel Engines and Gas Turbines – Oxford, Elsevier
Linacre House, 9th ed., 2009. – 903 p.
5. Roy B., Wankhede A. A Guide to 2-Stroke Marine Engine Components. – Marine Insight,
2013. – 104 p.
6. Lekshmanan S., Anil S. A Pictorial Guide to Important Checks on Main Engine Systems. –
Marine Insight, 2017. – 29 p.
7. Kuiken K. Diesel Engines. – Onnen, Target Global Energy Training 2008, part I – 509 p.,
part II – 442 p.
8. Wharton A.J. Diesel Engines. – Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 3rd ed., 1991. – 129 p.
9. Mollenhauer K., Tschoeke H. Handbook of Diesel Engines. – Heidelberg, Springer, 2010. –
636 p.
10. Sanyal D.K. Principles and Practice of Marine Diesel Engines. – Mumbai, Bhandarkar
Publications, 2005. – 483 p.
11. Pulkrabek W. W. Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine. – New
Jersey, Prentice Hall. 1994. – 426 p.
12. Christensen S.G. Lamb’s Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine. – London,
Charles Griffin & Company Ltd., 7th ed., 1978. – 466 p.
13. Brown D.T. A History of the Sulzer low-speed marine diesel engine. – Winterthur, Sulzer
Brothers Ltd. – 46 p.
14. Calder N. Marine diesel engines: maintenance, troubleshooting and repair – International
Marine Publishing Co, 3d edition, 2006. – 320 p.

58
Appendix

59
 Appendix Ⱥ

Example of the title page

60
 Appendix A
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
KHERSON STATE MARITIME ACADEMY

VESSEL’S POWER PLANTS OPERATION DEPARTMENT

COURSE PROJECT

on the subject “Marine internal combustion engines” on the topic

Thermal, kinematics, dynamics and strength calculation of the marine medium-

speed diesel engine MAN B&W 7L48/54

Course project supervisor Ph.D., asoc. prof. Yu. Bohdan

«__» __________ 20__ .

Carried out cadet of the 233 group G. Green

«__» __________ 20__ .

Kherson – 20__

61
 Appendix ȼ

Example of the course project task page

62
 Appendix ȼ

Kherson state maritime academy

(institution of higher education)

Department Vessel’s power plants operation department .

Subject Marine internal combustion engines .

Educational program Operation of ship power plant .

Year ______________ Group __________________ Semester ___________________

TASK
of the course project for cadet
_______________________________________________________________________
(surname, name)

1. Course project topic ____________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Course project deadline _________________________________________________
3. Initial data for course project _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

4. Content of calculation and explanation note (list of question) ____________________

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5. List of drawings (with exact indication of required drawings) ____________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Task issue date ________________________________________________________

63
Appendix ȼ
CALENDAR SCHEDULE
Deadline of the project
Sec. ʋ Course project stage name Notice
stage

Cadet _________________________ _________________________________

Supervisor _________________________ _________________________________
(signature) (surname, name, patronymic)

«____» ____________________ 200___

64
 Appendix C

Cross-section drawings of engines recommended as

prototypes for designing

65
Figure C1 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L48/60B

66
Figure C2 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L48/60CR

67
Figure C3 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W K98MC6

68
Figure C4 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine MAN B&W V32/44

69
Figure C5 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Sulzer RTA 68T-B

70
Figure C6 – Marine high-speed diesel engine Wartsila L20C

71
Figure C7 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S80MC6

72
Figure C8 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L32/44

73
Figure C9 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S50MC6

74
Figure C10 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Wartsila VASA R32

75
Figure C11 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S35MC7

76
Figure C12 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Wartsila &RT-flex82T

77
Figure C13 – Marine high-speed diesel engine Caterpillar 3500

78
Figure C14 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S26MC6

79
Figure C15 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine SKL NVD48AU

80
Figure C16 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L35MC6

81
Figure C17 – Marine high-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L23/30

82
Figure C18 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Sulzer RTA84C

83
Figure C19 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Wartsila 8L46C

84
Figure C20 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S42MC7

85
Figure C21 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Caterpillar MaK M43C

86
Figure C22 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Sulzer RTA58T

87
Figure C23 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Daihatsu DK28

88
Figure C24 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L70MC-C7

89
Figure C25 – Marine high-speed diesel engine Paxman VP185

90
Figure C26 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L60MC-C8

91
Figure C27 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L58/64

92
Figure C28 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Wartsila Sulzer 6RT-flex35

93
Figure C29 – Marine high-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L27/38

94
Figure C30 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S60MC-C6

95
Figure C31 – Marine high-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L21/31

96
Figure C32 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Sulzer RTA 72U

97
Figure C33 – Marine high-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L16/24

98
Figure C34 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S60MC6

99
Figure C35 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W K98ME-C6

100
Figure C36 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L32/40

101
Figure C37 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W K90MC-C6

102
Figure C38 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W K98MC-C7

103
Figure C39 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Wartsila W46C

104
Figure C40 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Wartsila Sulzer RT-flex96C

105
Figure C41 – Marine high-speed diesel engine Caterpillar 3600B

106
Figure C42 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S70ME-C

107
Figure C43 – Marine high-speed diesel engine MTU V4000

108
Figure C44 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S70MC-C

109
Figure C45 – Marine high-speed diesel engine Caterpillar MaK M32C

110
Figure C46 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S70MC6

111
Figure C47 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Sulzer Z40

112
Figure C48 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Sulzer RTA 48T

113
Figure C49 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine SEMT Pielstick PC-2

114
Figure C50 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L42MC

115
Figure C51 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S80ME-C7

116
Figure C52 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Skoda L275PN

117
Figure C53 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W L80MC

118
Figure C54 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S46MC-C7

119
Figure C55 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Caterpillar MaK M25C

120
Figure C56 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S50ME-C

121
Figure C57 – Marine medium-speed diesel engine Yanmar N21AL-V

122
Figure C58 – Marine low-speed diesel engine Wartsila Sulzer RT-flex58T-B

123
Figure C59 – Marine low-speed diesel engine S60ME-C7

124
Figure C60 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W K80MC-C

125
Figure C61 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S65ME-C8

126
Figure C62 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S80MC-C

127
Figure C63 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S90MC-C7

128
Figure C64 – Marine low-speed diesel engine MAN B&W S50ME-B8

129
Figure C65 – Marine high-speed diesel engine Hyundai H17/28
130
Notes

131
 Educational edition

Belousov Evgeniy
Samarin Oleksandr
Bohdan Yurii

Methodical recommendations for implementation of course project on the discipline “Marine internal
combustion engines” for foreign cadets of the ship power faculty of profession 271 River and marine
transport, educational program “Operation of ship power plant”

132
133
134