Antibodies

Kevin Passi
English 363
28 September, 2020

Revised: 6 December 2020

 Antibodies

An Antibody is a Y-shaped protein found in the immune system specific to a given pathogen. Antibodies

are an essential protein that is produced by the body to neutralize a foreign pathogen. In order for

binding, an antibody must recognize an antigen found on the membrane of the pathogen. The binding

between these two molecules helps trigger an immune response from the host and there are a few

ways. One of which is inflammation, which increases the blood flow in the surrounding area, helping to

heal and repair any damaged tissues. Another way is the attraction of white blood cells, which are very

important in fighting foreign cells. And the last nonspecific reaction caused by antibody bind is a fever,

which creates an environment that is not suitable for most bacteria and viruses.

Structure
 Antibodies are also known as

immunoglobulins and are found

throughout the human body,

typically in the blood system.

Antibodies are extremely small and

are a Y-shaped molecule, which is

unique in the body and the structure

consists of two main parts, the heavy

and the light chain. The heavy chain is connected and forms the basis of the Y and the light chains are

attached to the ends with disulfide bonds. These disulfide bonds are essential to increase the structural

stability of the protein. The synthesis of these bonds relies on cysteine reactions produced by protein

disulfide isomerase(Nishimiya 2014). The center and the base of the Y is considered the constant region

and does not change between other antibodies. Still, the variable region on the tips is specific to a

particular antigen. These two tips are important for a stronger affinity or a stronger connection between

the antibody and the antigen. This will prevent the antibody from falling off and not connecting with the

pathogen. There are five different classes of antibodies found in the human immune system; IgA, IgD,

IgE, IgG and IgM, each one of these classes has its specific role to play in the immune system, but they

generally consist of a Y shaped structure. IgA contains two sets of Y structures and the immunoglobulin

IgM has five different Y structures.

Practical Uses

Antibodies are not limited to a specific person but can be transferred between organisms as long as the

two species are compatible such as rabbits, goats, and sheep. The use of mammals for antibody

production is widespread and it is estimated that 70% of recombinant therapeutic proteins come from
these animals (Stech and Kubick 2014). These animals are great to use to get a reasonable number of

antibodies, but a larger animal such as a horse can be used if a more considerable amount is needed.

Typically, the use of animal antibodies used in humans is not very common because the antibodies have

to be made in a specific way to allow for human use. If not adequately prepared, the human immune

system will attack the foreign antibodies. Smaller animals such as mice and rats are not usually used

because these organisms can only produce so much immunoglobulin and will not be sufficient during a

transplant. Transferring antibodies between people is another way of passing on immunity and are

common when a recipient is immunodeficient and cannot produce any resistance on their own. A more

common method is a mother that breastfeeds her baby. This will pass down antibodies from the mother

to the baby to provide temporary immunity until the baby can develop their immune system. Another

use for antibodies is used in the scientific world; they are often used for quantification and determine if

specific proteins are expressed. If the target protein is expressed in a sample, a specific antibody will

bind to the protein. They can be used in western blotting, ELISA, immunohistochemistry assays and

many more experiments. These experiments require antibodies primarily because they are precise and

will only bind to one type of protein. This will yield either a positive or negative result and concentration

can be determined by observing how many antibodies adhere to the proteins. Antibodies can also be

modified to express fluorescence when exposed to light. This is very useful when used in conjuncture

with a primary antibody, usually used in a series of assays to determine protein concentrations.

Importance

The importance of antibodies and the immune system are paramount to protect from unseen

pathogens. In the immune system, antibodies serve two different purposes after attaching to an

invading cell. First, the antibody will bind to the active sites, the antigens, to prevent binding to a host

cell, preventing the pathogen from infecting other cells. The second purpose is to tag the cell to be
targeted for destruction by T cells or other cells produced by the innate immune system. Cells that have

been labeled with antibodies will be engulfed by the immune system and release a chemical signal that

will attract more immune cells to the area of infection.

Specificity

Each antibody is designed for one

specific antigen and actively circulate

the blood system. Because of each

antibody's specificity, there can be

millions of unique antibodies that

circulate the body that actively look

for foreign invaders. The immune

system has two different ways to

develop immunity, the first is active immunity and this involves exposure to a foreign virus or the use of

a vaccine. This process usually takes approximately 5-7 days to develop antibodies to help fight an

infection. This active immunity provides the B-cells with a type of blueprint to produce more antibodies

to fight any future infection. This production is similar a manufacturing plant, the B-cells acts as a factory

and can adjust production based on demand. If an infection is detected in the immune system, B-cells

will produce certain antibodies if the body has encountered the foreign invader before. A vaccine works

in a similar pattern but the virus is unable to replicate while inside the host, this will help prevent being

contagious while the immune system is still fighting the foreign virus. The injection of an inactive or

attenuated virus will localize in the area where a shot was given and usually results in a soreness which

is only temporary for a few days. The second type of immunity is passive immunity, this involves the

transfer of antibodies from one person to another. This can be either through a direct antibody transfer,
blood transfusion or between a mother and a baby during the first few years. Both of these methods are

beneficial but some are better depending on the time frame. Passive immunity takes effect almost

immediately but will only last a short while in the body, but active immunity will last long-term/lifetime

but it will take effect within a few weeks.

Production

The production of Antibodies

involves many different cells

in order to be produced, the

first cell that interacts with a

foreign cell is either a

macrophage or a dendritic

cell. These are cells that are

nonspecific and are part of

the immune system, dendritic cells are usually located near the surface of the skin while macrophages

are mobile that can travel freely across the human body. These cells are the first responders, much like

firefighters or the police and are actively looking for anything out of place such as a foreign cell. If one of

these cells detects an intruder, it is quickly engulfed and the components of the engulfed cell are

delivered to local B cells. These B cells will then start coding for a new antibody with the specific binding

sites for the foreign pathogen(Pacific Immunology). Once an antibody has been successfully reproduced,

other B cells will produce the specific antibody in high concentrations to fight the invading pathogen.

Once the infection has cleared, the B cells will reduce the antibodies' production but will remember the

antibody in different conditions.

History
The use of antibodies has been around since the early 1700s with the disease smallpox. In this

experiment, a cow was infected with cowpox, which was a less severe strain of smallpox, and a sample

from the cow was collected and administered to a boy. This boy was then immune to smallpox because

his body developed an immunity to the disease. At this time, immunity was just being discovered and

the discovery of antibodies wasn’t until the late 1800s by Emil von Behring and Shibasabura Kitasato. In

their experiment, serum was collected from animals that recovered from sickness, and this serum was

then injected into another sick animal with the same disease. The experiment's result was the full

recovery of the sick animal and complete immunity from the disease later on. This experiment's

importance was seen and was soon applied to human uses to provide immunity to many different

conditions.
 References

Aryal Sagar. Microbe Notes. Retrieved September 28, 2020.

https://www.Microbenotes.com/introduction-to-antigen/

Britannica Encyclopedia. Retreived September 28, 2020.

https://www.britannica.com/science/antibody

Dubey, K. K., Luke G. A., Knox C., Kumar P., Pletschke B.I., Singh P. K., Shukla P. 2018. Vaccine

and antibody production in plants: developments and computational tools. Briefings in

Functional Genomics. 17(5), 295-307.

How are Antibodies Produced?. Retrieved September 29, 2020

https://www.pacificimmunology.com/resources/antibody-introduction/how-are-antibodies-

produced/

Kantha S. S. 1991. A centennial review; the 1890 tetanus antitoxin paper of von Behring and

Kitasato and the related developments. The Keio journal of medicine, 40(1), 35–39.

Kyowa HakkoKirin Co. Ltd, https://microbiologyinfo.com/antibody-structure-classes-and-functions/

Nishimiya D. 2014. Proteins improving recombinant antibody production in mammalian cells.

Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 98: 1031-1042.

Stech M., Kubick S. 2015. Cell-free synthesis meets antibody production: a review. Antibodies.

4: 12-33.
 For this paper, I used three themes from Markel's definition strategies. I used Principles of

Operations; I typed my paper in the following order: Structure, Practical uses, Importance, Specificity,

Production and History. I also used Examples: found in Practical uses. I use the relationship between a

mother and their baby, and I also used another example in Production with B cells and police and the

fire department. And finally, I used graphics; I used three throughout the paper.