International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 73 (2014) 819–825

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Technical Note

Heat transfer enhancement of backstep flow by means of EHD

conduction pumping
Miad Yazdani a,⇑, Jamal S. Yagoobi b
a
Thermal & Fluid Sciences Department, United Technologies Research Center, East Hartford, CT 06108, United States
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electrohydrodynamics (EHD) conduction pumping takes advantage of the electrical Coulomb force
Received 20 December 2013 generated by externally applied electric field and dissociated charges from electrolytes. The backstep
Received in revised form 22 February 2014 flows that appear in certain types of MEMS application are not very efficient from the heat transfer
Accepted 24 February 2014
standpoint due to the trapped circulation flow in the reattachment zone. This paper is a numerical study
Available online 21 March 2014
on the application of EHD conduction pumping as an auxiliary tool for heat transfer enhancement of
backstep flows in macro- and micro-scale systems. An innovative electrode design with a dc electric
Keywords:
potential difference is proposed with the primary motivation to reduce the volume of reattachment zone.
EHD conduction
Heat transfer enhancement
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction example, Inaoka et al. [10] studied the application of Magnetohy-

Heat transfer augmentation in separated flows has received
special attention due to the variety of its applications and numer-
ous manufacturing restrictions which result in the channel config-
uration to be far from optimized. The study of fluid mechanics and
heat transfer characteristics of flow over backward facing steps
goes back to early 1980s by Armaly et al. [1], Kim and Moin [2],
Thangam and Knight [3] to the recent years. The details and pro-
gression of the dozens of publications on numerical Kim and Moin
[2], Thangam and Knight [3], Le et al. [4], Williams and Baker [5],
Barkley et al. [6] and experimental Tylli et al. [7], Kasagi and
Matsunaga [8], Lee and Mateescu [9] investigations of step flows
serve as an evidence of the maturity of the subject and its appeal
amongst thermal and fluid researchers due to its unique flow
and thermal characteristics and the potential heat transfer
enhancement due to the recirculation zone downstream of the step
(see e.g. the work by Inaoka et al. [10], Nie et al. [11]). The overall
heat transfer performance of the system is greatly impacted by the
mixing of the high and low energy fluids in the reattachment
region. For instance, the maximum heat transfer rate occurs
adjacent to the reattachment region where the flow impinges the
surface, whereas the step’s corner is characterized with a
minimum heat transfer rate due to the sudden change in the flow
geometry. The heat transfer enhancement of backstep flows have
been studied extensively particularly in the recent years. For
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 8606107843.
E-mail address: yazdanm@utrc.utc.com (M. Yazdani).
drodynamics (MHD) to enhance the backstep heat transfer perfor-
mance by introducing small disturbance with electromagnetic flap
actuators on the step edge. Velazquez et al. [12] investigated the
heat transfer improvement of a backward facing step by using a
pulsating flow. They found that the time-averaged Nusselt number
of the pulsating flow is always superior to the steady-state coun-
terpart with the maximum enhancement occurring at the resonant
frequency. Abu-Nada [13] and Nie et al. [11] conducted numerical
investigation, respectively on the effects of nanofluids and solid
baffles on the heat transfer over a backward facing step.
The enhancing effect of a strong electric field on heat transfer
rates has been known for over 70 years Allen and Karayiannis
[14]. EHD induced flow allows enhancement of heat transfer
without the introduction of large pressure drops and the resulting
increase in pump size and power typically associated with conven-
tional methods that introduce turbulence. It involves the interaction
of electric fields and flow fields in a dielectric fluid medium. For a li-
quid, one can take the advantage of this interaction to pump the li-
quid and augment the heat transfer. There are three kinds of EHD
pumping mechanisms utilizing the electric body force; i.e. Coulomb
force. Ion-drag pumping requires direct injection of free charges
into the liquid and is not desirable due to degradation of the liquid
properties induction pumping is based on charges induced in a li-
quid due to a gradient or discontinuity of the electric conductivity.
Conduction pumping is associated with the heterocharge layers of
finite thickness in the vicinity of the electrodes that are based on
the process of dissociation of the neutral electrolytic species and
recombination of the generated ions Seyed-Yagoobi [15].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.02.064
0017-9310/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
820 M. Yazdani, J.S. Yagoobi / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 73 (2014) 819–825

Nomenclature

b charge mobility coefficient Tm mean temperature

C0 EHD dimensionless number, C 0 ¼ 2b rd2 Tw wall temperature
V
cp constant pressure specific heat u velocity vector
d channel half width U in Velocity at the channel inlet
D charge diffusion constant uehd EHD reference velocity, uehd ¼ bV
d
Dh hydraulic diameter, Dh ¼ d V applied electric potential
e electron charge x Cartesian coordinate unit vector
E electric field vector ach non-dimensionalized charge diffusion constant
f electric body force vector  absolute electric permittivity
FðxÞ I1 ð2xÞ=x f electrode pairs distance
h heat transfer coefficient g electrode gap
I electric current l dynamic viscosity of fluid
k thermal conductivity m kinematic viscosity of fluid
kB Boltzmann universal q constant
ffiffiffiffiffiffi n electrode width
Mo mobility ratio, Mo ¼  q mass density
qb2
Nu Nusselt number r electric conductivity of fluid
Nu0 Nusselt number in the absence of electric field / electric potential
NuE Nusselt number in the presence of electric field X vorticity vector, X ¼ r  u  1=2
e3 jEj
n negative charge density x dissociation rate coefficient, x ¼ 2
4pkB T sat
n surface normal unit vector
neq electric charge concentration at equilibrium subscripts
p positive charge density 0 quantity in the absence of electric field
P pressure e quantity in the presence of electric field
Pr Prandtl number, Pr ¼ mc g ground electrode
q00 applied heat flux on the channel wall HV high voltage electrode
Reehd EHD Reynolds number, Reehd ¼ uehd ml
d
in channel inlet
Re hydrodynamic Reynolds number out channel outlet
T absolute temperature s solid zone

Extensive number of publications focused on the applications of
EHD ion injection for heat transfer enhancement of dielectric liq-
uids Seyed-Yagoobi and Bryan [16]. Among those applications,
EHD enhancement of channel flow has received considerable
attention in the past few years. Benetis [17] conduced an experi-
mental measurement of EHD ion injection heat transfer enhance-
ment in small scales. In theory and for dielectric liquids, flow
destabilization by producing transverse flows is traditionally stud-
ied to augment the heat transfer in sheared flows (see e.g. Lara
et al. [18]) with a major motivation to understand and control
the motion of fluids in numerous industrial applications. Kasayap-
anand et al. [19] examined EHD-injection heat transfer enhance-
ment in laminar forced convection across a tube bank and found
that the heat transfer is significantly enhanced by the EHD mech-
anism at low Reynolds numbers. However, the heat transfer
enhancement was associated with an additional pressure drop
due to the presence of the electrodes inside the channel.
There are limited number of published papers concerning heat
transfer augmentation with electric conduction phenomenon (see
Yazdani and Seyed-Yagoobi [20] and references therein). Yazdani
and Seyed-Yagoobi [21] proposed an electrically driven impinging
liquid jet that provided a considerably high heat transfer perfor-
mance mainly due to the unique flow distribution at the nozzle
exit and over the surface. Furthermore, evaporation and condensa-
tion heat transfer enhancement by means of EHD conduction have
been studied by the same researchers Yazdani and Seyed-Yagoobi
[22,23].
This paper investigates the heat transfer enhancement of back-
ward facing step where the external flow forced convection is
aimed to be enhanced by EHD conduction phenomenon. Two elec-
trode configurations are studied with the main objective of reduc-
ing the recirculation zone volume in the downstream region of the
backstep. The local and average heat transfer enhancements as
well as the associated pressure drop along the channel are reported
for different operating conditions.
2. Theoretical model
Fig. 1 illustrates the 3-D representation of the 2-D numerical
domain considered for this study. It also includes the numerical de-
tails of the electrodes design. A constant mass flow in being sup-
plied at the channel inlet. A constant DC potential is applied to
the wider (HV) electrodes while the narrower electrodes are
grounded (see Fig. 1). The net flow is generated due to the elec-
trodes asymmetry and is superposed onto the externally driven
fluid flow. Per given electrode pair, the net flow direction will be
from the narrower electrode toward the wider electrode Yazdani
and Seyed-Yagoobi [24]. The channel wall is assumed to be electri-
cally insulative. A constant heat flux is applied along the channel
lower wall while the upper wall remains thermally insulated.
The following assumptions are incorporated in the theoretical
model:
 The solution domain is 2-D, steady state and laminar.
 The channel wall is assumed to be thermally conductive and
electrically insolated with no volumetric electric charges.
 Mobility and diffusion coefficients for the positive and negative
ions are the same.
 Charge injection is absent.
The theoretical model for EHD conduction phenomenon is
adapted from the work by Jeong and Seyed-Yagoobi Jeong et al.
[25]. The following transport equations govern the fluid dynamics
and heat transfer of the flow:
ru¼0 ð1Þ
 M. Yazdani, J.S. Yagoobi / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 73 (2014) 819–825 821

Table 1
Summary of hydrodynamic and electrostatic boundary conditions.

Equation Momentum Electrostatics

Liquid/wall interface u=0 nr(p,n,/) = 0
Ground electrode U=0 See text
Hv electrode U ¼ Us
Inlet u ¼ ðuin ; 0Þ n  rðp; n; UÞ ¼ 0
Outlets P¼0

ratio Atten [26] and C 0 is expressed as the electric convection-con-

duction ratio Crowley [27]. Note that Langevine’s approximation
for dielectric fluids Langevin [28] is used to relate the recombina-
tion constant to the liquid properties; that is: kr ¼ 2b=.
The liquid is in contact with the channel wall which is assumed
to be thermally conductive and electrically insulative. Assuming no
volumetric electric charges within the channel wall, the Laplace
equation governs the potential field and temperature distribution:
   
/s 0
Fig. 1. Schematic of 3-D representation of the 2-D solution domain (not to scale). r2 ¼ ð7Þ
Upper figure is electrode configuration 1 and lower figure is electrode configuration
Ts 0
2. Table summarizes the summary of dimensions.
The summary of hydrodynamic and electrostatic boundary con-
ditions is provided in Table 1.
    !
u rP 1 2 u
ur ¼ þ r 1
T 0 Re Pr
T 3. Numerical technique
 2    
Reehd E 0
þ M2o C 0 ðp  nÞ þ ð2Þ The code developed by the authors solves the transport equa-
Re 0 Je tions using Finite Volume discretization scheme. The discretization
The last two terms on the right hand side of Eq. (2) are the direct equations are solved iteratively by the line-by-line application of
consequences of applied electric field and attributed to the electric the tri-diagonal matrix algorithm. Central difference scheme is ap-
body force and Joule heating, respectively, and the latter is defined plied to the Gauss’ law and upwind scheme based on the electric
as: field direction is applied to the charge conservation equations. It
  has been shown in the past that the backward facing step flow be-
d comes largely three-dimensional for Re > 750 Barkley et al. [6] due
J e ¼ rjEj2 ð3Þ
cp u0 T 0 to the instabilities associated with vortex stretching in the third-
dimensions. While certain operating conditions presented in this
The electric body force and the Joule heating are the results of
paper could violate the assumption of 2-dimensionality, the results
applied electric field. These terms require the solution of the
are merely presented to illustrate the effect of EHD conduction
following Maxwell’s relations
phenomenon on flow characteristics, particularly in the reattach-
E ¼ r/; r  E ¼ C 0 ðp  nÞ ð4Þ ment zone downstream of the backward facing step. For the base-
line case, Re ¼ 200 and Reehd ¼ 0, the computational domain
and charge conservation equations based on dissociation and comprises of 120  2400 structured non-uniform grid points with
recombination of neutral impurities (i.e. electrolytes): the resolution progressively increased near the walls. The details
       of grid-convergence study for different cases studied in this paper
p Re p p
r  Eþ u  ar ¼ 2C 0 ðFðxÞ  pnÞ ð5Þ can be found in Yazdani [29]. The convergence criteria,
n Reehd n n w w
j iþ1wi i j < 105 , is applied for all involved parameters. The numer-
with d; u0 ; qu20 ; V=d, and neq , respectively, selected as scaling param- ical model for non-EHD driven flow over backward facing step flow
eters for length, velocity, pressure, electric field, and free charges. is validated against experimental measurement of Armaly et.al [1]
The dimensionless temperature is defined as T ¼ ðT  T 0 Þ=T 0 . T 0 for the onset of reattachment and detachment regions, presented
has been arbitrarily selected as the reference temperature at the in Fig. 2. It is observed that the model well-predicts the length of
channel inlet and is set to 300 K which corresponds to refrigerant reattachment region downstream of the step for Re < 900 while
R-123 saturation temperature at atmospheric pressure. The result- the prediction for the location of the separation bubble that ap-
ing dimensionless coefficients in the above equations are defined pears on the upper wall starts to deviate from the measurement
as follows: at Re  600, both attributed to thee-dimensionality of the flow
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi and the resultant vortex stretching at higher Reynolds numbers.
bV U in Dh  rd2 In addition, the model has been validated against the measurement
Reehd ¼ ; Re ¼ ; Mo ¼ ; C0 ¼ ;
m m qb 2 2bV of Aung [30] for average heat transfer performance as well as
temperature profile within and beyond the recirculation region.
kB T
ach ¼ ð6Þ The reader is referred to Yazdani [29] for further details of the
eV validation results. The comparison of average Stanton number
The charge concentration at equilibrium, neq , is defined as and Nusselt number against the measurements of Aung [30] is pre-
neq ¼ r=2b and is identical for both positive and negative charges sented in Fig. 3 where the empirically derived correlation based on
in absolute quantity which guarantees electrically neutral their data (i.e. St av ¼ 0:787Re0:55 ðs=xs Þ0:72 ) is used to estimate the
dielectric liquid at equilibrium. Mo is identified as the mobility heat transfer performance of the step flow under present operating
822 M. Yazdani, J.S. Yagoobi / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 73 (2014) 819–825

Table 2
Summary of fluid properties.

Property Value Reference

 [F/m] 42:43  10 12 [32]
r [S/m] 4:7  1011 [32]
q [kg/m3] 1452 [34]
l [Pa s] 4:087  104 [34]
k [W/m K] 0.066 [34]

of Reynolds numbers and compared to the ones for non-enhanced

flow.
Fig. 4(a) and (b), respectively, illustrate the distributions of
electric field and electric body force over the surface of the two
electrodes for electrode configuration 1. The streamtraces
corresponding to the electric field and electric body force are
drawn according to the local direction of the pertaining vector;
Fig. 2. Comparison of onset of reattachment/detachment regions against measure-
E ¼ ðEx ; Ey Þ and f ¼ ðfx ; fy Þ for electric field and electric body force,
ment of Armaly et al. [1].
respectively. As shown in Fig. 4(a), high intensity electric field
exists within the inter-electrode region. It was not practical to
illustrate the variation of the electric field across the solid/liquid
1 St , Aung
10 av interface with the results presented in gray-scale. The electric body
Nu , Aung
av
force magnitudes embedded by the body force streamtraces are
St , Present presented in Fig. 4(b). It is observed that the major part of the elec-
av
tric body force is concentrated around the edges of the electrodes,
Nu , Present
av particularly on those facing toward the inter-electrode region, and
av

is directed toward both electrodes surfaces. The consequence of

Stav × 102, Nu

electrodes asymmetry is the dominance of the body force directed

0
10
0 100 200 300 400
Re
Fig. 3. Comparison of average heat transfer performance of no-EHD backward
facing step flow against of Aung [30].
conditions and is compared to the model’s predictions. The average
Stanton number, St av is defined as follows,
Nuav
Stav ¼
Pr Re
It is observed that the maximum error remains < 14% and it oc-
curs at the higher end of operating Reynolds number. The EHD
model has not been validated against the experimental measure-
ment of backward facing step flow due to the lack of experimental
measurement data for this configuration. However, it has been val-
idated against available experimental data of Siddiqui and Seyed-
Yagoobi [31, Fig. 2b].
4. Results and discussions
The reference values selected to calculate the dimensionless
parameters correspond to the properties of refrigerant R-123 as
the working fluid Bryan [32] and are summarized in Table 2. A con-
stant heat flux of q00 ¼ 1 kW/m2 is applied along the channel wall.
The electrostatic and fluid dynamic parameters will be presented
for the first electrode configuration at Re = 200 and Reehd ¼ 590.
In addition, the local heat transfer performance is presented for
both electrode configurations at Re ¼ 200 and different EHD
Reynolds numbers. Finally, the average heat transfer performance
along with the associated pressure drop are presented over a range
from the narrower electrode toward the wider electrode. In addi-
tion, the multi-directional pattern of the electric body force results
in considerable secondary velocities over the surface of the
electrodes.
The flow streamlines for the base case (with no EHD enhance-
ment) and for both electrode configurations are presented in
Fig. 5. The figure also illustrates the variation of dimensionless vor-
ticity, X ¼ r  u, in the vicinity of the step wall. While the non-en-
500
hanced step flow is characterized by a typical recirculation in the
downstream region, the EHD enhanced flow shows the secondary
circulation next to the step wall as the consequence of locally in-
duced upward and forward flow adjacent to the electrodes, respec-
tively, for the first and second electrode configurations. In both
configurations, the counterclockwise circulation zones are charac-
terized by a pronounced positive vorticity adjacent to the step’s
wall. Note that the primary recirculation would have disappeared
without the formation of the secondary vortex if the electrodes
ð8Þ were to operate at lower EHD Reynolds numbers (i.e. applied elec-
tric potential). As the result of formation of secondary circulation
in the reattachment region, the temperature profile encounters a
significant departure from the traditional step-flow profile as illus-
trated in Fig. 6. While the slightly higher temperature at the wall at
x ¼ 3:25 for Reehd ¼ 590 suggests a lower heat transfer coefficient
compared to the non-enhanced counterpart, the temperature
drops to values smaller than the non-enhanced flow within the
channel, resulting in a higher overall thermal performance. Away
from the secondary circulation region, x ¼ 3:25, the temperature
for the enhanced case remains higher than the non-enhanced case
so as to result in lower heat transfer coefficient as will be discussed
next. The local Nusselt number along the channel lower wall in the
step’s downstream region for the enhanced and base cases is
presented in Fig. 7. The local Nusselt number is defined as follows:
hðxÞDh
Nux ¼ ; ð9Þ
k
q00
hðxÞ ¼ ; Dh ¼ d ð10Þ
T w ðxÞ  T m ðxÞ
where mean temperature, T m , is defined as:
 M. Yazdani, J.S. Yagoobi / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 73 (2014) 819–825 823

Fig. 4. Dimensionless contours of (a) electric field and (b) electric body force along with the corresponding stream-traces for electrode configuration 1.

(a) -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

1

0.8

0.6
Y

0.4

0.2

0
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
X

(b) -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

1

0.8

0.6
Y

0.4

0.2

0
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
X
Fig. 6. Temperature and streamwise velocity profiles across the channel for
electrode configuration 1 at two channel cross sections of x ¼ 3:25 and x ¼ 3:75
(c) -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
in the absence, Reehd = 0 and presence, Reehd = 590 EHD conduction.
1

0.8
the base case along the remaining length of the channel. This is
0.6
the adverse consequence of change in the characteristics of the
Y

0.4 reattachment zone. It is worth noting that the Nusselt number

0.2 for the base case peaks at around the reattachment zone (see
thick-line in subplots of Fig. 7), though at a rather subdued fashion
0
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 given the low Reynolds number and the conjugate exchange of
X heat across the solid/liquid interface [33]. It is, however, sup-
Fig. 5. Flow streamlines overlaid onto the dimensionless vorticity field, X, for (a)
pressed as the result of EHD-driven flow. In addition, both the ini-
base case, (b) electrode configuration 1, and (c) electrode configuration 2 (see tial peak and the subsequent decline in heat transfer performance
Fig. 1). Re = 200 and Reehd ¼ 590. are promoted as EHD Reynolds number increases. Although the
corner heat transfer peak for the second electrode configuration
is less significant compared to the first configuration counterpart,
Z d
1 the local Nusselt number stays on the top of the base case for
Tm ¼ R d uTdy ð11Þ the entire length of the channel. Finally, despite a rather similar
0
udy 0
flow structure of the two electrode configurations (Fig. 5(b) and
For the first electrode configuration, the local heat transfer per- (c)), the heat transfer characteristics are quite different particularly
formance next to the corner is greatly augmented by the applica- at the immediate vicinity of the backward step, Fig. 7. This is attrib-
tion of EHD conduction. The heat transfer peak is followed by a uted to the concentration of flow circulation as quantified by the
sharp decline so as to let the local Nusselt number to stay below vorticity contours in Fig. 5 with most prominent values against
824 M. Yazdani, J.S. Yagoobi / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 73 (2014) 819–825

Reehd = 0 Reehd = 276 Reehd = 590 Reehd = 1380

0.06

0.048

Δ P/(0.5ρ Uin)
2
0.036

0.024

0.012

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550

0.06

0.048

Δ P/(0.5ρ Uin)
2
0.036

0.024

Fig. 7. Local Nusselt number along the channel wall for Re ¼ 200 and various EHD 0.012
Reynolds numbers for (a) electrode configuration 1 and (b) electrode configuration
2 (see Fig. 1). 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Re
Re =0 Re = 276 Re = 590 Re = 1380
ehd ehd ehd ehd
Fig. 9. Total pressure drop along the channel vs. Re number for different EHD
3.1 Reynolds numbers for (a) electrode configuration 1 and (b) electrode configuration
2 (see Fig. 1).

2.7
The backstep heat transfer enhancement declines with Reynolds
number. Particularly for the first electrode configuration, the net
Nuave

2.3 enhancement becomes negative for Reehd ¼ 1380 and Re P 400.

As explained previously, this is the result of the weakened imping-
ing region at the edge of the reattachment region. Furthermore,
1.9 according to Fig. 9, the application of EHD conduction is associated
with a larger pressure drop across the inlet/outlet for a given flow
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
rate. This is because the clockwise circulatory flow induced next to
the electrodes tends to generate a net flow from right to the left of
3.1
the channel as opposed to the externally driven flow.

2.7 5. Conclusions
Nuave

The application of EHD conduction phenomenon for heat trans-

2.3
1.9
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Re
Fig. 8. Average Nusselt number vs. Re number for different EHD Reynolds numbers
for (a) electrode configuration 1 and (b) electrode configuration 2 (see Fig. 1).
the vertical wall for electrode configuration 1 and against the hor-
izontal wall for electrode configuration 2. For electrode configura-
tion 2, however, there exists a narrow region of negative
circulation adjacent to the horizontal wall, which results in the
suppression of most of the enhancement achieved by the second-
ary counterclockwise circulation.
Finally, Figs. 8 and 9 present the average Nusselt number and
the total pressure drop along the channel over a range of Re
numbers. For both electrode configurations, the heat transfer
enhancement is more substantial at lower Reynolds number with
a considerably better performance for electrode configuration 1.
fer enhancement of backstep flow was investigated. The heat
transfer rate was considerably enhanced next to the corner with
the electrodes embedded against the vertical wall. It was followed
by a subsequent decline due to the diminished impinging region at
the cusp of the reattachment region. The average heat transfer per-
400 450 500 550 formance showed reasonable improvement at low Reynolds num-
ber which implies the potential advantage of such mechanism for
micro-scale systems as they often operate at very low Reynolds
numbers. The application of EHD conduction was associated with
a pressure drop penalty due to the tendency of the electrodes to
generate opposing net flow which could become significant at
large EHD Reynolds numbers. The electrodes design and configura-
tion are yet to be optimized to maximize the heat transfer
enhancement while minimizing the pressure drop along the
channel.
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