TAYLOR SERIES

If 𝑓 can be differentiated 𝑛 times at 𝑥0 , then we define the 𝑛th

Taylor polynomial for 𝑓 about 𝑥 = 𝑥0 to be

′
𝑓′′(𝑥0 ) 2
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥0 )
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑓 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛
2! 𝑛!
𝑛
𝑓 𝑘 𝑥0
=෍ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑘
𝑘!
𝑘=0

If 𝑥0 = 0, the expansion is known as a Maclaurin series.

Example
1
Find the nth Taylor polynomial for 𝑓 𝑥 = about 𝑥0 = 2
1−𝑥
1
f(x) = f(2) = -1
1−𝑥
1
𝑓 ′ (x) =
(1−𝑥)2
𝑓 ′ (2) = 1
2
′′
𝑓 (x) =
(1−𝑥)3
𝑓 ′′ (2) = -2
6
′′′
𝑓 (x) = 𝑓 ′′′ (2) = 6
(1−𝑥)4

By applying the formula,

𝑓′′(𝑥0 ) 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥0 )
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑓′ 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + 2
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛
2! 𝑛!

−2 2 𝑛+1 (𝑥
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = −1 + 1 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥−2 + ⋯ + −1 − 2)𝑛
2!
MACLAURIN SERIES
If 𝑓 can be differentiated 𝑛 times at 0, then we define the 𝑛th
Maclaurin polynomial for 𝑓 to be

𝑓 0 𝑓′ 0 𝑓 ′′ 0 2 𝑓 ′′′ 0 3 𝑓 (𝑛) 0 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 x = + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
0! 1! 2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑛
𝑓 (𝑘) 0 𝑘
=෍ 𝑥
𝑘!
k=0

Maclaurin series are named after the Scottish mathematician

Colin Maclaurin.
Example
Find the nth Maclaurin polynomials for 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑓 0 =1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓′ 0 = 1
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ 0 = 1
𝑓 ′ ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ 0 = 1

By applying the formula,

𝑓 0 𝑓′ 0 𝑓 ′′ 0 2 𝑓 ′′′ 0 3 𝑓 (𝑛) 0 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 x = + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
0! 1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
1 2 1 3 𝑥𝑛
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ +
2 6 𝑛!
Constructing Maclaurin series by substitution

Using the Maclaurin Series:

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛 Eq 1
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯+
2! 3! 𝑛!
Find the Maclaurin series for
𝑒 −𝑥
Substitute 𝑥 by −𝑥 into the equation 1

(−𝑥)2 (−𝑥)3 (−𝑥)𝑛

𝑒𝑥 = 1 + (−𝑥) + + + ⋯+
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑥2 𝑥3 (−𝑥)𝑛
𝑒𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + − + ⋯+
2! 3! 𝑛!

∞
𝑥
(−𝑥)𝑛
𝑒 =෍
𝑛!
𝑛=0
Constructing Maclaurin Series by Convergent
Geometric Series
Geometric Series
∞
𝑎
෍ 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 = = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1
1−𝑟
𝑘=0
𝑎≠0 𝑎
Only suitable for 1−𝑟
Find the Maclaurin series for
1 𝑎
compare with
1−𝑥 1−𝑟
𝑎 = 1 and 𝑟 = 𝑥
∞
1
= ෍ 1 + 1 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + (1)(𝑥 𝑘−1 )
1−𝑥
𝑘=0 ∞

෍ 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑘−1
𝑘=0
Constructing Maclaurin Series by Integration
Find the Maclaurin Series for tan−1 𝑥
It would be tedious to find the Maclaurin series directly. A better
approach to start with formula
−1
1
tan 𝑥 = න 2 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥
𝑎
1. Use geometric series , 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑟 = −𝑥 2
∞ 1−𝑟
1 2 + 1 −𝑥 2 2 + ⋯ + (1)(−𝑥 2 )𝑘−1
= ෍ 1 + 1 −𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
𝑘=1
= 1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ + (−1)𝑘 𝑥 2𝑘
2. Integrate term by term
−1
1 2 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ )𝑑𝑥
tan 𝑥 = න 𝑑𝑥 = න( 1 − 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
𝑥3 𝑥5
=𝑥− + +⋯
3 5
Group work

Find the 𝑛th Maclaurin series for

1. sin 3𝑥
1
2. 1−𝑥 3

Formula
𝑓 0 𝑓′ 0 𝑓 ′′ 0 2 𝑓 ′′′ 0 3 𝑓 (𝑛) 0 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 x = + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
0! 1! 2! 3! 𝑛!