Joumol o ' Geochemical £ zpforof ion, 22 ( 1984) 119—132

119
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam — Printed in The Netherlands
 120

THE USE OF THE FINE FRACTIONS OF STREAM SEDIMENTS IN

GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID TERRAINS

R.BEESON
Metals Division, Slhell Company o f Aucl:ralia Ltd., Box 872K, Melbo urne, Vic. 3001

(Received May 24, 1983 ; revised and accepted March 22, 1984)

ABSTRACT

Beeson, R., 1984. The use of the fine fractions of stream sediments in geochemical
exploration in arid and semi-arid terrains. J. Geoehem. Explor., 22: 11 W13 2.

Partitioning of Cu, Pb, Zn, U, Aa and Mo between the minus 70 µm and minus 200
µm fractions of stream sediments from arid and semi-arid terrains is examined in the
light of published ease histories supplemented by new data. The advantages of
selecting a particular fraction for routine sampling in such arid environments are
assessed in terms of five criteria: (1) homogeneity of background population; (2)
definition of threshold; (3) absolute element abundance levels; (4) contrast between
anomalous and background populations; and (5) length of dispersion train. The most
homogeneous background population distributions and improved definition of the
threshold between background and anomaly occur in the very fine, minus 70 µm
fraction of stream sediments for the majority of elements, in particular for Zn, Cu, U
and As. Data for Pb and Mo do not consistently favour either size fraction in the case
histories studied. Increased abundance levels of elements which are normally close
to the analytical detection limit (U, Mo, As) occur most frequently in the minus 70
µm fraction, although Cu, Pb and Zn levels are commonly higher in the coarser
fraction. In addition, the finer size fraction better defines the anomalous population
and provides the longer dispersion trains for Cu, Pb, Zn, U and As in the majority of
ease histories.
The data examined indicate that the minus 70 µm fraction provides more useful
information, in many instances, than the minus 200 µm fraction. The evidence suggests that
problems expected with the use of the fine fraction — dilution through the abundance of wind
blown material, and insufficient fine sediment — do not restrict the use of this fraction in
stream sediment surveys in arid terrains.

INTRODUCTION

The selection of the optimum size fraction of a stream sediment sample

to provide the best opportunity of recognizing the presence of mineralization
within a catchment is an important consideration in exploration. One
method of solving the problem is to conduct a comprehensive orientation
survey in mineralized and background drainages in the vicinity of the
exploration area. However, in many instances a comprehensive orientation
survey is not practical for a number of reasons, such as lack of suitable
sites, contamination of drainages by old mining activity, or
insufficient time. Consequently, there is often a heavy reliance on
experience in similar environments and on information available in
publications.
The use of the coarse fractions of stream sediments is frequently advocated
in mineral exploration in arid environments because iron-rich gossanous
material is relatively resistant to breakdown in erosional processes, and
mechanical dispersion can often be more important than chemical dispersion
in such environments (e.g. Davy et al., 1980). However, there is some
evidence to suggest that the very fine fraction of stream sediments also
possesses advantages in exploration for relatively mobile elements over the
minus 200 µm fraction, which is the most commonly used fraction in
humid climates. Unfortunately, publications addressing this problem are
rare, and the evidence from such surveys is somewhat contradictory. For
example, at the Gamsberg zinc-lead deposit in South Africa, McLaurin
(1978) found similar lengths of dispersion in both the minus 70 µm and
minus 200 µm fractions, whereas at the nearby Aggeneys lead-zinc-copper
deposits Beeson et a1. (1974) determined that the mineralization was better
defined in the finer fraction.
This paper uses the information available in publications and unpublished
data to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages, in arid environments, of
the minus 70 µm (minus 200 mesh) fraction of stream sediments in
comparison with the more widely used minus 200 µm (minus 80 mesh)
fraction. A review of several size fractions would clearly have been more
useful, but the relevant information is not available for a comparable number
of case studies.
The relative merits of the two fractions are assessed using five criteria,
which overlap in some respects but collectively help to establish the merits
of a particular fraction.
(1) The homogeneity of the background population.
(2) The ability to establish threshold between anomalous and background
populations.
(3) Relative concentration levels, particularly in relation to analytical
detection limits.
(4) The contrast between anomalous and background populations.
(5) The length of dispersion trains.
Examples in this paper are taken from the available case histories at the
localities given in Table 1. Several of the case histories used in this review
are unpublished, and it is not practical to include all of the frequency diagrams,
cumulative frequency diagrams, and downstream dispersion diagrams used to
assess the five parameters given above. This information is available from the
author.
TABLE 1

Caae history locations, geology and environments

Location Geology Mineralizatio Relief Climate References

n
Riehtersveld, South Metamorphosed Cu,Mo,W,Sn, High to Arid Von Backstrom and de
Africa sediments and volcanies, Ta moderate Villiers, 197 2; Beeson et
granitoids al„
1978
Aggeneys, South Africa Metamorphosed Pn,Zn,Cu,Ag Moderate to Arid Ryan et al., 1982;
sediments, granitoids low Beeson et aL, 1974
Gamsberg, South Africa Metamorphosed Zn,Pb High to low Arid RozendaaJ, 1978 ;
sediments, granitoids Beeson et al., 1974;
McLauren, 1978
Karoo, South Africa Plastic sediments U Moderate to Semi- Von Backstrom, 1974
low arid
Sarkhanlu, NW Iran Alkaline volcanics U,Cu Moderate Semi-
arid
Dechan, NW Iran Syenite, carbonaceous U,Cu Moderate Semi-
arid
sediments
Rayen, SE Iran Volcanics, elastic Cu High to Arid
sediments moderate
Beltana, South Australia Carbonates Zn,Pb Moderate Arid Muller and Donovan, 1971
Freddie Well, Western Felsie volcanies Zn,Cu Moderate Arid Smith et al., 1976
Australia
122

BACKGROUND POPULATION DISTRIBUTIONS AND DETERMINATION OF

THRESHOLD

The homogeneity of the background population distribution is an

important consideration. Ideally the background population should
possess a normal or lognormal distribution, and a relatively restricted range
of values. These conditions permit the threshold between the upper
limit of the background population and samples from an anomalous
population to be more readily detected. A background population
comprising of several sub-populations or indeed appearing to consist of
several independent populations can be extremely difficult to separate from
an anomalous population by standard graphical methods. Threshold values
in data sets which contain more than one population have been
determined in the case studies given here from cumulative frequency
diagrams, using the method described by Sinclair (1976).
Available examples of comparisons of background population distributions
indicate that the finer, minus 70 µm fraction gives more consistent
distributions for the majority of elements (Table 2). Zn distributions are
particularly marked in this respect in all case histories. For example, the
survey area in the Richtersveld Province illustrated in Fig. 1 is under- lain
solely by intermediate volcanics, and possesses no known Zn mineralization.
However, the irregularity of the upper part of the minus 200 µm distribution
suggests that several populations, including possible anomalous values, may
be present. The minus 200 µm fraction was pulverized prior to analysis, and
the irregular distribution is not caused by increased analytical variation in the
coarser fraction. Similar irregularities can be seen in most examples of Cu,
U and As distributions in the case studies examined here. The contrast
between the anomalous and background

18 16

12

p pm Zn ppm ”’

Fig. 1. Frequency distributions of zinc in minus 70 µm and minus 200 µm size frac- tions
of stream sediments, Richtersveld Province, South Africa.
 123

samples in the finer fraction is particularly striking in the distribution

pattern of Cu in the volcanic terrain in SE Iran hosting porphyry copper
mineralization (Fig. 2).
The abundance levels of U in stream sediments are frequently close
to or below the analytical detection limit and distribution characteristics
are masked because of low element ranges or many values being below
detection. An exception occurs in the Sarkhanlu district of NW Iran, where
U- and Th-enriched volcanic rocks contribute to stream sediment abundances,
which are considerably greater than normal. Absolute U levels are

OO 60

0
ppm Cu

Fig. 2. Frequency distributions of copper in minus 70 µm and minus 200 µm size frac-
tions of stream sediments, Rayen district, SE Iran. Threshold values between anom-
alous and local background populations determined from cumulative frequency diagrams.

4 8 12162O J 6 121S20 *22

PPm U Ppm U

Fig. 3. Frequency distributions of uranium in the minus 70 om and minus 2o0 mm

size fractions of atream sediments, Sarkhanlu, NW Iran.
 124
higher in the minus 200 µm fraction, but the most homogenous distribution occurs in
the finer fraction (Fig. 3).
Available case histories indicate no consistent pattern in the distribution of Pb
between the minus 200 µm or the minus 70 µm fractions (Table 2). The few
available studies of thorium and zirconium, elements which more commonly occur
in resistate minerals, generally have more homogenous distributions in the coarser
fraction (e.g. Fig. 4).
M INU S g OO mm

» 02 m 12

4 4

$ <a60 >1Oa 2 0 40 60 S 0 1
8O OO
pµm Th pµm Th

Fig. 4. Frequency distributions of thorium in the minus 70 µm and minus 200 µm frac- tions
of stream sediments, Sarkhanlu, NW Iran.

The increased homogeneity of the populations in the minus 70 µm fraction

of stream sediments allows a better definition of threshold values for the
majority of elements, including Pb (Table 2). The most notable exception is
Mo in stream sediments from the SE Iran porphyry copper district.

RELATIVE CONCENTRATION LEVELS

Several important elements have low concentrations in stream sediments,

and a size fraction with enhanced levels is desirable for exploration sampling.
The problems of low concentration levels are illustrated by U, because the
normal background population range overlaps the detection limits of both
fluorimetric and XRF analytical methods. It was anticipated that an element
with the mobility of U would be consistently enriched in the fine, clay-
rich fraction, but this is not the case (Table 2). Three of five examples
follow the expected pattern, with total U values in sediments in the minus 70
µm fraction in the Karoo Basin of South Africa
 Optimum alze fraction (minus 70 µm or minus 200 µm) of stream sediments In nine ease histories
Criterion Size Rlebteraveld, Aggeneys, Gamsberg, Karoo, Sarkhanlu, Dechan, Raven, Beltana’, Freddie "11.
fraction S Africa S Afrlca S Afrlca S Africa NW Iron NW Iran SE Iran S Australia W Australia

Homogeneous -70 µm Zn
Zn* Cu.PJa, Zn,
distribution —200 µm
Pb,Zn* U* U*,Mo*

Determination —70 µm zn,u.Mo,xs

Ofthf RltOld
—200 µm
U*.MO

—70 µm Cu, Zn.U,Mo,Ae Cu,Pb, Zn Cu, Zn,Pb * U,Mo Cu* Cu,Pb,Zn, Aa Cu,Pb • Zn
element U,Mo*,As
abundances —200 µm Pb Cu*,Pb, Zn.U Mo Cu,Pb,Zn, U Pb• Zn*
•

Coatzaat Pb.Zzz Pb.Zn* U

between

berkground
.populmtmooe —200 qm Zn* Cu*,Mo

—7 0 µm Cu* UtMO Cu.Pb, U. As

—200 µm Cu• Pb•, Zn• Pb S Cu.Mo
*no advantage In either fraction.
’ Minus 200 plus 70 µm versus minus 70 µm.
 126
and NW Iran being approximately double that of the coarser fraction.
The significance of such increased abundance levels is illustrated in the
Karoo Basin example (Fig. 5), in which only a high precision analytical
method such as delayed neutron counting could have defined the background
population distribution of total U in the coarser fraction.

Fig. S. Frequency distributions of uranium in the minus 70 µm and minus 200 om

size fractions of atream sediments, Karoo Province, South Africa. Threshold value be-
tween anomalous and background populations determined from the cumulative fre-
quency diagram.

The higher U levels in the minus 200 µm fraction from Sarkhanlu, NW

Iran are thought to be produced by the presence of U within zircon. This mineral
resists mechanical and chemical breakdown and is enhanced in the coarser
fraction.
Where these elements have been determined the minus 70 µm fraction
normally contains higher abundances of Mo and As than the minus 200 µm
fraction (Table 2).

CONTRAST BETWEEN OF ANOMALOUS AND BACKGROUND POPULATIONS

For stream sediment exploration to be effective any mineralization

within a given catchment must contribute to the composition of the sediment
in the drainage. Values in anomalous sediments must be sufficiently
distinctive for them to be distinguished from the regional background
in at least one size fraction. Values must also be anomalous for a
considerable distance from the source. The case history illustrated by the
frequency diagram in Fig. 5 exemplifies the advantage of using the correct
size fraction in a reconnaissance survey. The test area of 100 km2 in the
Karoo Basin contained several small, outcropping uranium occurrences. The
area was systematically sampled at a sample density of one per km2.
Values above 6 ppm formed a clearly defined anomalous population in
the cumulative frequency diagram and could be related to several of these
occurrences. In contrast the coarser fraction contained no recognizable
anomalous values.

U
E

mln•rollzstlon 0.6 1.0 Km

dlr•ctIon of dr alnago

1 000
Thr ••fiold
4 i Oppm

mfneroll zallon 1.0 9.0 S.0 K -

d I rec t Ian of drainage

1000

MINU6 70 xim
u
E soo
trIbutarl•• •ntarIng drainage)
mIn•ralIaatlon
1.0 y.a 9.1 Km

dIr•ctIen ct droInoe•

Fig. 6. Dispersion of copper drainages below mineralizatiorL a. Rayen district, SE Iran.

b and e. Dechan, NW Iran. Threshold valuea between anomalous and local background
populations determined from cumulative frequency diagrams.
 Not all size-fraction comparisons are as definitive as the above. In examples
of stream sediment surveys in the vicinity of copper mineralization results
are commonly inconclusive (e.g. Figs. 6a and 6b, Table 2). The amplitude
of the anomaly may vary in the different size-fractions, but there is no
difference in the ability of the anomalous population to define the presence
of mineralization. The case study from northwest Iran (Fig. 6c) indicates
the presence of a more significant anomaly in the minus 70 µm fraction, and
Smith et al. (1976) report the advantages of the finer fraction at Freddie
Well, Australia.
The three examples of orientation surveys over lead mineralization for
which available information permits the evaluation of this parameter favour
the use of the minus 70 µm fraction (Table 2). At the Aggeneys and
Gamsberg base metal deposits in Bushmanland this fraction of the stream
sediments provides more consistent anomalous values (Beeson et al., 1974;
McLaurin, 1978). Similarly the Dechan study in northwest Iran indicates
a more extensive and higher anomaly in the minus 70 µm fraction (Fig. 7).

m I n e r a II xat I on 1 .0 2. 0 3. 0 ft m

dlr ec tl on a f dr al neg e

Fig. 7. Dispersion of lead in a drainage below mineraliz ation, Deehan, NW Iran. Thresh-
old values between anomalous and local background populations determined from
cumulative frequency diagrams.

The contrast between anomalous and background populations is equally

distinctive for Zn in both size fractions over the major Gamsberg orebody
(McLaurin, 1978). However, both the Aggeneys and Freddie Well examples
provide a better recognition of mineralization by the anomalous population in
the fine fraction (Table 2).
Several further case histories in the Karoo Basin district confirmed the
advantages of the minus 70 µm fraction for identifying U anomalies in
that district (e.g., Jakob et al., 1979). In addition the Dechan prospect
in northwest Iran is reflected by a considerably more distinct anomaly
in one of the two drainages (Fig. 8).
There are little available data on Mo in stream sediments. The two
examples from Iran provide markedly contrasting results, At Rayen
anomalous dispersion is only evident in the minus 200 µm fraction with no
 20

2. 0 S.0 Km
dl r ec tion of d r a in age

1. 0
2.0 3. 0 Km

dIrec tion aI dra ma g•

Fig. 8. Dispersion of uranium in drainages below mineralization, Dechan, NW Iran.

Threshold values between anomalous and local background populations determined
from cumulative frequency diagrams.

anomalous values in the finer fraction (Fig. 9a). The converse occurs at
Dechan in northwest Iran (Fig. 9b).

LENGTH OF DISPERSION TRAIN

The fraction with the higher contrast between anomalous and back-
ground populations might be expected to provide the longer dispersion
trains away from the mineralization, and the case histories used in this
compilation generally indicate this to be true. However, some examples
 20 MINUS 2OO xjm

E MINUG 70 aim (Thr •ehold 6ppm7

O. 5 K m

dIr • cI I on aI dralna ge

miner ell cation 1. 0 2.0 s.a xm

d Ir ec I I on o f dra Inag•
Fig. 9. Dispersion of molybdenum in drainages below mineralization. a. Rayen district,
SE Iran. b. Dechan, NW Iran. Threshold values between anomalous and local background
populations determined from cumulative frequency diagrams.

with greater contrast in the minus 70 µm fraction possess dispersion trains of

similar lengths in both fractions.
In an orientation survey in the drainage from the Gamsberg zinc-lead
deposit, South Africa, McLaurin (1978) concludes that the dispersion
for zinc was similar in the two fractions. However, re-interpretation of
his work indicates that the minus 200 µm fraction approaches the regional
background of 100 ppm 2.5 km closer to the mineralization.

DISCUSSION

The assessment of the two finer sieve fractions of stream sediments presented above
provides strong support for the selection of the minus 70 µm fraction of stream
sediments in exploration for Cu, Pb, Zn, U, Mo or As mineralization on the basis
of four parameters: homogeneous population distributions, determination of
threshold, contract between anomalous and background populations and the
length of dispersion trains.
The minus 200 µm fraction is found to be a preferable sample medium in only a
minority of case histories on the basis of these four parameters.
The remaining parameter, increased element abundances, is equally favoured in both
the minus 200 µm and minus 70 µm fractions. Only As is consistently more
abundant in one size fraction (minus 70 µm), whereas other elements examined are
enhanced in an approximately equal number of ease histories in the two
fractions.
At present research into the dispersion of elements from mineralization
in arid terrains is not sufficiently advanced to explain the empirical
observations given above. Three possible causes of the advantages of the
finer, minus 70 µm fraction of the stream sediments are believed to be:
(a) The minus 70 µm fraction contains a very much larger number of
grains than any coarser fraction, and is consequently a more representative
sample.
(b) The minus 200 µm fraction commonly contains abundant rock
fragments and primary mineral grains, whereas there is a relative increase
in the quartz and clay mineral content in the minus 70 µm fraction.
Consequently it is believed that the grains that constitute the finer fraction
have a more uniform mineralogy than those of the coarser fraction. Both
(a) and (b) lead to the occurrence of a more uniform background population
which permits the better definition of any anomalous population present.
(c) The proportion of ions adsorbed onto the clay minerals and fine
iron oxide particles is greater in the finer fraction of the stream sediments.
Stream sediment geochemistry has been found to remain an effective
exploration tool in areas of significant wind transported detritus in the
case studies presented here. The minus 70 µm fraction has detected
anomalous dispersion from base metal mineralization even in areas of sand
dune development; for example, anomalous levels of Cu and Pb can be
traced for at least eight kilometers in ephemeral drainages through an
extensive dune field down-gradient from the Black Mountain Cu-Pb-Zn
deposits, South Africa (Beeson et al., 1978).

Finally, doubt has been expressed as to whether sufficient minus 70 µm

material is available for collection in stream sediment surveys. Experience
in three continents in surveys which have involved tens of thousands of
samples has shown that the number of sample sites at which there is
insufficient of this fraction for analysis is less than one percent of the total.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The results described in this manuscript are taken from several surveys
carried out with the assistance of a number of colleagues. In particular
the author wishes to thank Wilfred Herzberg, Doug Hutchison, Graham
Miller, Geoff Murphy and David O’Connor for their help in this respect.
The author is also indebted to the Shell Company of Australia for the
preparation of the paper and to Bertus de Graaf for reading an early copy
of the manuscript.

REFERENCES
Beeson, R., Herzberg, W. and Frick, A., 1974. Geochemical orientation studies of base
metal occurrences in the north-western Cape Province. Ann. Geol. Surv. S. Afr.,
10: 3-6.
Beeson, R., Bru nke, E.G. and Dent, R.H., 1978. Preliminary results from a regional
geochemical survey in the north western Cape Province. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. Spec.
Pub1., 4: l8W204.
Davy, R., Roasiter, A.R. and Wall, L.N., 1980. Stream sediments. J. Geochem. Explor., 12:
131-133.
Jacob, W.R.O., Murphy, G.C. and Smit, M.C.B., 1979. Comparison of total and cold
extractable uranium in stream sediments of the south-western Karoo Supergroup, South
Africa. Atomic Energy Board Rept. PEL. 267, Pretoria, South Africa.
McLaurin, A.N., 1978. Geochemical dispersion from the Gamsberg orebody, north-
western Cape, South Africa. J. Geoehem. Explor., 10: 296-306.
Muller, D.W. and Donovan, P.R., 1971. Stream sediment reconnaissance for zine silicate
(willemite) in the Flinders Ranges, South Australia. C.I.M. Spec. Vol., 11: 231-234.
Rozendaal, A., 1978. The Gamsberg zine deposit, Namaqualand. Geol. Soc. S. Afr.
Spec. Pu bl., 4: 235-262.
Ryan, P.J., Lawrence, A.L., Lipson, R.D., Moore, J.M., Paterson, A., Stedman, D.P.
and Van Zijl, D., 1982. The Aggeneys base metal sulphide deposits, Namaqualand,
South Africa. Univ. Witwatersrand Eeon. Geol. Res. Unit, Inform. Circ. No. 160,
33 pp.
Sinclair, A.J., 1976. Applications of Probability Graphs in Mineral Exploration. Assoc.
Explor. Geochemists, Spec. Vol. No. 4.
Smith, R.E., O’Connell, A.M. and Edwards, R.G., 1976. Freddie Well Zn-Cu deposit. In:
R.E. Smith, C.R.M. Butt and E. Bettany (Editors), Surficial Mineral Deposits and
Exploration Geochemistry, Y ilgarn Block, Western Australia. 25th Int. Geol. Congr.
Sydney, Exe. Guide 4 lC, pp. 45—48.
Von Baekstrom, J.W., 1974. Other uranium deposits. In: Formation of Uranium Ore
Deposits. Proc. Symp. Athens, I.A.E.A., Vienna, pp. 605-624.
Van Baekstrom, J.W. and de Villiers, J., 197 2. The Geology of the Orange River Valley
between Onseepkans and the Richtersveld. Explan. Sheeta Vioolsdrif and Onseepkans,
Geol. Surv. S. Afr., 101 pp.