Loras College

The Real Truth: Examining Notions of Hybridity and

Nativism in Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine

Katie Celarek
Senior Literature Capstone
Dr. Stone & Dr. Auge
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“Every foot and inch you’re standing on, even if it’s on the top of the highest skyscraper,

belongs to the Indians. That’s the real truth” (Erdrich 278). Throughout the course of history

Native American culture has changed and shifted in order to survive the ever present modern

world. It has been a constant battle not only to retain their land, but to keep the Native culture

intact and separate from the outside world. As a result, Native American literature has had to

change and adapt, ultimately taking on new forms as a way of celebrating the past. One

prominent author in the Native American literature field is Louise Erdrich. She has become a

pioneer for the genre, her works displaying the way in which Native identity formation occurs. In

Love Medicine (1984) Louise Erdrich ultimately advocates for an essentialist notion of cultural

identity, where a person is only Ojibwe to the extent that they are not contaminated by white

colonial culture and society. This demonstrates that while the novel addresses the conflicted

nature of post-colonial identity, and even appears to gesture towards the notion of hybridity,

ultimately the presence of white modernity has a corruptive effect on individual and tribal

identity.

In order to fully grasp all that Love Medicine has to offer, one must first understand the

history behind the novel and the group of individuals it depicts. Erdrich writes about the Ojibwe

people, otherwise known as the Chippewa tribe. The Ojibwe was the original name of the group,

often spelled Ojibwa or Ojibway. However, as time progressed the influence of white colonizers

started to creep in, resulting in the Anglicized name of the Chippewa, which translates to

Puckered Moccasin People in English. The Ojibwe originally referred to themselves as

Anishinaabe, meaning simply “the people”. However, as Native Americans started to split up,

and were forced by whites to move in various directions, these tribal distinctions like the Ojibwe

came into place. The Ojibwe tribe was first officially recognized by French settlers in the 1600’s
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(McKinney). According to the Minnesota Historical Society, the tribe mainly inhabited

Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Ontario. Today they still occupy a smaller portion of land

in these locations, the largest Native reservations being White Earth and Red Lake in northern

Minnesota. Due to the colder climate of the land and the inability to farm most months out of the

year, the Ojibwe were primarily hunter gatherers. In the winter months the tribe would split up

into small families to fish and hunt, and then in the warmer months they would all come back

together to farm essential crops, such as wheat and corn, and share resources.

Out of the various Indian industries, the Ojibwe specialized in furs and maple syrup, both

of which contributed to their initial relationship with the French. In the early years, the French

were the Ojibwe’s closest allies. They fought side by side in the French and Indian War in 1689,

and continued to back them in various conflicts thereafter. Often times the French would even

intermarry with the Ojibwe people. In Love Medicine, elements of French influence are apparent

through various names. Take for example Marie Lazarre, the name “Lazarre” being of French

decent, and “Marie” in French translates to Mary in English. However, as time went on different

nations began to intrude upon the more northern territory of the continent, most predominantly

being the British. Eventually in the mid 1700’s the British completely forced the French out of

what is known today as the United States. During this time, the British tentatively aligned

themselves with the Ojibwe. They were nowhere near as engaged as the French, however, their

intentions were never completely destructive towards the Ojibwe people. The two groups traded

regularly, and the British even attempted to keep white American settlers off their land.

Eventually the British were forced out of the United States region, leaving the Ojibwe to the

mercy of American settlers. While American settlers did trade some with the Ojibwe, they were

much more interested in the land they inhabited, than forming real relationships. They wanted to
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dominate the Ojibwe people, and were concerned less with them as human beings and more with

making a profit off their land. As a result of several failed treaties and different ploys to get the

Ojibwe to move westward, the tribe eventually conceded most of their land. While they did not

lose all of their land, a segment of the Ojibwe tribe choose to move westward into North Dakota

in an attempt to avoid further white destruction. Erdrich’s own ancestors were amongst this

group, which is why we see a majority of her works, such as Love Medicine, set in this location.

While the Ojibwe still have territory in states like Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin, it is

nowhere near the amount they used to occupy.

The next essential step in understanding the clashes between cultures in Love Medicine, is

understanding the cultural background of the Ojibwe people. While whites can see parallels with

their own cultural beliefs in Native culture, much of traditional Ojibwe culture does not seem

familiar. In some instances, it even appears to reject white social beliefs and polarize the two

groups. The first major principle of Ojibwe culture is the idea of an egalitarian structured society.

This differs vastly from Euro-American society that is built around a hierarchical structure.

According to anthropologist Eleanor Lealock in her article entitled “Women’s Status in

Egalitarian Society: Implications for Social Evolution”, “the basic principle of egalitarian band

society was that people made decisions about the activities for which they were responsible.

Consensus was reached within whatever group would be carrying out a collective activity” (229).

In the Ojibwe culture there was this idea of balance amongst genders, meaning that men and

woman carried the same amount of responsibility. In typical white society men are often viewed

as above women, however Native culture views women as strong, powerful, and very dominant

figures. They were entrusted with substantial tribal responsibility and constantly stood side by

side with the men, regardless of the activity. An example of this principle is evident through the
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character of Lulu Lamartine. She was consistently in charge and head of her household. She

proved she didn’t need a man to make her strong and could handle her problems all on her own.

For the Ojibwe, power was often balanced amongst the two genders, and there was never the

questioning of worth that is often seen in white society.

Additionally, this principle of gender balance plays into the next element of Ojibwe

culture, being the establishment of nontraditional families. According to anthropologist Eleanor

Lealock, “these peoples were organized not in tightly bound family units but rather in loosely-

based and flexible family bands and kinship groups” (226). Lealock demonstrates that Ojibwe

families typically took on a different look and form than traditional western families, meaning

that families weren’t always comprised of blood relations. Mothers would often take in orphaned

or stray children of the reservation and raise them like their own, creating this interconnectivity

within a tribe. This also explains why it is widely accepted amongst the Ojibwe that they are not

Monogamous individuals, thus meaning that they would marry a single person; however, those

individuals might also bear children with separate partners as well. While marriage was not

necessarily a free-for-all, it definitely left room for more flexibility amongst partners that is not

seen in western society. Once again this principle is clearly exhibited through the character of

Lulu. She has many different children from different men, however she seamlessly leads her

family without a man by her side. In typical white society, there is the idea of a nuclear family,

one in a which a man and a woman are married, have a handful of children, and live a white

picket fence style of life, where the man is in charge, and the woman stay at home to raise the

children. The Ojibwe people do not follow the same set of white standards, and instead thrive in

nontraditional families.
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The next major characteristic of Ojibwe culture that differs from Euro-American society

is the idea of temporality. This means that in white society time is seen in a very linear manner.

However, in Ojibwe culture time is seen as cyclical, meaning that they view the world to be

recurrent. What is gone and dead is not necessarily gone and dead forever, suggesting that the

past is never forgotten or abandoned. The element of the past is seen almost as a living presence.

This belief stems from a more spiritual place and the idea of the afterlife. The representation of

time can clearly be seen through the structure of Love Medicine. From story to story, the novel

continuously jumps around in time, going from past to present interchangeably, ultimately

displaying the fluidity of time and the idea that the past is never forgotten.

The last major characteristic of the Ojibwe culture is their strong connection to the Earth,

and the expanded notion of personhood. Anthropologist Irving Hallowell further explains the

notion of expanded personhood in his article “Ojibwa Ontology, Behavior, and World View”

stating that “the same standards which apply to mutual obligations between human beings are

likewise implied in the reciprocal relations between human and other-than-human persons

[nature]” (172). He demonstrates that nature is an alive and fluid presence and therefore has the

ability to shape individual identity. In white society nature is seen as a separate entity from one’s

self. However, in Ojibwe culture, nature and identity are intertwined. There’s a push and pull

relationship between the two that complement one another, and they are rooted in the very

existence of the Ojibwe Tribe. The Ojibwe also recognize spiritual presence in inanimate objects.

Elements of the natural world were seen as “other-than-human persons” (Hallowell 172),

meaning that to the Ojibwe things from the non-human world were alive and ever-present.

Louise Erdrich’s background also plays a significant role towards the interworking’s of

the novel. Today Erdrich is a 66-year-old writer and poet, and while she did not grow up on a
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reservation, she spent a great time around one due to the fact that her parents taught at the

Bureau of Indian Affairs school in Little Falls, Minnesota. Love Medicine was her first novel,

and she has gone on to write many additional works in the Native American literature genre.

Erdrich is of Native American and German American descent, thus giving her a very diverse

background in terms of cultural identity. Her native side originates from the Turtle Mountain

Chippewa Tribe, which is a branch of the Ojibwe tribe. The tribe is located in North Dakota, and

a majority of Erdrich’s works are set in that state. Her cultural background plays a substantial

role in the interworking’s of Love Medicine. As Lydia Schultz suggests, “Erdrich's heritage as a

Native American provides her with a world view that differs substantially from mainstream

American, or European-inherited, views” (84). Erdrich’s background is what allows her to be

able to weave together these multicultural stories surrounding her heritage, and avoid

mainstream white colonial stories. Her roots enable her to write open and honest characters that

reflect the truth and challenges they encounter as Native Americans living in today’s world. It is

because of her background, that she is ultimately able to form these types of stories, and become

a pioneer of sorts in the Native American literature genre.

Love Medicine ultimately belongs to the genre of Native American literature. Jane

Johnson Schoolcraft was an Ojibwe author who wrote in the 1830s and 1840s about “Indian

literature”, which was originally referred to as the writing on oral tradition and tribal history and

culture. From her writings, scholars were able to pull out a succinct definition of the genre

stating that Native American Literature is written work that displays the culture, history, or

different philosophies of Indigenous or Native individuals (Dean). Throughout the course of

history, the genre has expanded and allowed for a variety of influential Native writers such as

Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins, Leslie Marmom Silko, James Welch, etc., to shed light on what it
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means to be Native. While present day Native American literature is comprised of written works,

it was not always as such. Native American Literature used to solely be shared orally. It involved

storytelling and different cultural ideologies, and was a tradition passed down from generation to

generation. However, as time went on, and pressure from western culture to either relocate or

assimilate increased, Native Americans recognized the need for change. Literary critic K.L.

MacKay points out that, “writing became a means to perpetuate tradition in the face of cultural

disintegration”. Native Americans adapted to written forms of storytelling as a way to essentially

preserve their culture. They recognized the fact that to continue on as they were would be

detrimental not only to their history, but to their culture in the long run, ultimately allowing

Native American Literature to change and morph into a new form over time.

It is also important to note how the book is structured. Love Medicine is first and

foremost a novel. However, it does not necessarily follow the standard outline of a novel. Instead

of chapters, Love Medicine is comprised of seventeen short stories, told through varying

perspectives across multiple generations. Instead of appearing linear, which is typical of white-

authored novels, Erdrich creates a more cyclical or web-like story. The narration freely switches

between first person and third person, as well as jumps around in time, making the short stories

appear out of order chronologically. Schultz, further explores this stylistic choice and goes into

explain why the structure actually means a lot more than it may first appear, for example “Her

"fragments" draw on both Euro-American and Native American oral narrative techniques such as

first-person narration, direct addresses to "you," and the use of the present tense; as a result, she

encourages readers to look at her various narratives as oral stories” (82). Erdrich’s structure

ultimately ties back into her Native American background, and is a nod back to the Native

original way of storytelling. She essentially was able to structure her novel by using both past
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and present characteristics of Native American Literature, thus creating something new for the

genre as a whole.

Next, it is crucial to the understanding of the proceeding argument to be familiar with a

few key terms. The first term to be discussed is hybridity. There are multiple ways to define

hybridity, Stuart Hall defines hybridity in relation to cultural identity and states that, “cultural

identity . . . far from being eternally fixed in some essentialised past . . . [is] subject to the

continuous ‘play’ of history, culture, and power” (112-113). As Hall continues he points out that

the hybrid notion of cultural identity is “not an essence, but a positioning,” meaning that it is a

negotiation of “unstable points of identification or suture” (112-113). In the most basic sense of

the word, hybridity means a mixture. In this particular context hybridity is seen as a mixture of

two cultures, in Erdrich’s case being white and Indigenous. It is the idea of fusing two separate

worlds together, often through characteristics of post colonialism, and creating the embodiment

of balance. While those are the most dominant western academic definitions, Erdrich has a

slightly different opinion on hybridity in relation to a literary context. While she believes in the

idea of mixing cultures and worlds, she also recognizes the fact that literary hybridity is simply

just a distinction. For example, according to Erdrich, “…the concept of a Native American writer

is an academic distinction. It’s made to attract people to courses where you can lump authors

together… I’m mixed. Labels make a good headline. I don’t dislike it, but I find it tedious”

(Balogh). It is not something that has strict rules or can define a character if they do not wish to

be. While many literary scholars place heavy emphasis on hybridity, Erdrich doesn’t necessarily

view it as something that will make or break an individual. For the purpose of this essay

hybridity is defined as a combination of the two listed above. In Love Medicine, hybridity is the

successful mixing of cultures between the Indigenous Ojibwe people, and modern white society.
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It’s the blending of two seemingly separate entities to form a whole, with no cracks or room for

doubt. In order to be a successful hybrid one needs to have a rooted identity in both worlds, and

the ability to intertwine the two into one single harmonious identity, and be recognized as such

by both groups, something that isn’t necessarily apparent in Love Medicine.

The next key term that is necessary to the understanding of the proceeding discussion is

essentialism. On the very basic level, essentialism is the idea that individuals have a very specific

set of attributes that are crucial to forming individual identity. Stuart Hall applies the notion of

essentialism to cultural identity, and defines it as, “a sort of [shared] or collective ‘one true self’,

hiding inside the many other, more superficial or artificially imposed selves” (110-111). The

implication is that there needs to be a very stable foundation, without the blurring of lines in

order for an individual to create their own successful identity. In relation to identity formation in

Love Medicine, only one culture should be predominantly pushed in the upbringing of a child.

Nativism being the side more heavily argued for. Edward Said defines Nativism as being “an

advocacy & assertion of a pure, pre-colonial essential identity.” He demonstrates that the

inclusion of elements of white modernity in a Nativist identity can actually be damaging to

individual and cultural identity formation, which is an idea further explored in Love Medicine.

Since its publication, Love Medicine has been widely regarded amongst many literary

critics. When discussing the topic of hybridity, many critics argue that hybridity succeeds

throughout the novel. In Karla Sanders article entitled “A Healthy Balance: Religion, Identity,

and Community in Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine” she advocates for hybridity stating that, “As

it strives for healing and balance, the novel suggests that being an American and a Native

American are not diametrically opposed identities” (153). She argues that hybridity is a sort of

balancing act, and the more successful an individual is at balancing the two identities, the more
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successful a hybrid character becomes. As the article continues she argues that being an

American and Native American can successfully be merged together to form one whole identity.

Jeanne Smith is another literary scholar that also argues for hybridity in her article entitled

“Transpersonal Selfhood: The Boundaries of Identity in Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine” stating that

“Erdrich's language suggests the real danger that a lack of reference presents in our modern

world: individuals cut off from transpersonal connections lose control over their own boundaries,

jeopardizing even physical existence” (14). Her article discusses the ways in which an

individual’s identity is incomplete if the Indigenous side loses connection with the modern side.

She argues that in order to from a successful hybrid cultural identity, elements from both cultures

must be present. While both of these arguments have interesting points of discussion, ultimately

this essay is going to be discussing how hybridity fails within the novel. Through examining the

characterization of three key pairs in Love Medicine, it becomes apparent that the individuals

who embrace their Native identity and reject white modernity ultimately prosper. However, the

characters that try to mix the two cultures in the formation of their identities ultimately fail,

indicating that hybridity is unsuccessful.

Understanding Nativism and Hybridity through Characterization

Throughout the course of Love Medicine Erdrich ultimately advocates for an essentialist

notion of cultural identity, where a person is only Ojibwe to the extent that they are not

contaminated by white American culture and society. Although there are many effective ways to

examine this, the best way to do so is to look at some of the main characters in pairs across

various generations. One character being representative of the Indigenous and Nativist identity

that Erdrich is advocating for, while the other is their counterpart, and actively demonstrates their

contamination from the white world. The first pair being examined is Eli and Nector.
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Nector Kashpaw is an Ojibwe man who throughout the course of his life has been

contaminated by the white world time and time again. When he was young he was sent off to

boarding school in an effort made by the U.S government to assimilate Native Americans into

white American culture. His time in a white educational institution is what ultimately started

Nector down the path towards contamination. Many Ojibwe who were sent to boarding school

were never content with the choice, always running away and wreaking havoc for the nuns.

Nector, however, was never depicted as such. He went to school, learned, and came back to the

reservation. He never tried to fight this slow oozing of white colonial culture that creeped in over

time, and it can be contributed as the beginning of his contamination. As the novel continues the

audience sees a more definitive representation of Nector’s contamination in the “Plunge of the

Brave.” The first half of the story discusses his time in the white world and ultimately how he

turned his back on some of his native Ojibwe identity in order to survive. A more concrete

example of this can be seen when Nector is asked to pose in the nude for money, “I had to forget

my dignity. So I was paid by this woman a round two hundred dollars for standing stock still in a

diaper” (Erdrich 120). Nector was willing to throw away his pride for money. He succumbs to a

white capitalist society, demonstrating his willingness to assimilate despite his Native

background. While Nector eventually returns to the reservation, his exposure to white modernity

is what leaves him in an in-between place: not fully belonging to either the white world or his

Native homeland. His inability to belong to either identity has often caused critics to describe

Nector as being, “on the edge of disappearance” (Ferrari 144). His inability to form one strong

cohesive cultural identity ultimately sends him down a self-destructive path towards further

contamination.
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This contamination is once again visible in Nector’s political standing within the tribe.

His political role further described in the second half of “The Plunge of the Brave,” for example

“Chippewa politics was thorns in my jeans. I never asked for the chairmanship, or for that

matter, anything, and yet I was in the thick and boil of policy” (Erdrich 132). Nector once again

finds himself in a position of straddling the fence between two identities. On one hand he is waist

deep in relations with Washington, the pinnacle of white politics, on the other hand he is also in

charge of the safety and wellbeing of his Native people. It is the influence from the ever-looming

white colonial presence of the government, that makes Nector a stranger in his own home. While

it might appear that Nector has some sort of power for himself in his political position as tribal

chairman, he is ultimately acting as a puppet for a larger body of white contamination. This once

again demonstrates his inability to find balances between modernity and Nativism, leaving

behind an incomplete identity.

Not only is this idea of straddling the fence between two worlds evident in his public and

professional life, but it is also apparent in his personal life through his two major love interests:

Marie Kashpaw and Lulu Lamartine. Throughout the course of Love Medicine, the woman fight

time and time again for Nector’s attention. For example, “He always did have to have his candy

come what might and whether Lulu or Marie was damaged by his taking it. All that mattered was

his greed” (Erdrich 289). Marie is representative of the more modern and assimilated side, while

Lulu represents the more native side. Nector’s consistent inability to choose between the two

women is a direct reflection of his inability to choose between the two identities. These two

separate sides are consistently at war with one another, ultimately never allowing Nector to find

any kind of spiritual or emotional peace. As Nector ages, he begins to wither away and lose his

mind. Instead of being sad and attempting to fight his illness he appears to give in, and it is
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apparent to those around him, “his great-grandson, King Junior was happy because he hadn’t yet

acquired a memory, while perhaps Grandpa’s happiness was in losing his” (Erdrich 20). Nector

had been at war with himself for so long over his two identities, that he was only ever able to

find peace when he no longer had to choose. Nector in a sense was freed when he eventually lost

his mind, because it meant his internal battle between the two different identities was finally

over. Throughout the entirety of Love Medicine Nector tries to combine these identities and

ultimately fails, thus demonstrating the incapacity for one to form a successful hybrid identity.

Eli however embraces his Native identity and can be seen as the opposite of Nector.

Unlike his brother, Eli did not go to boarding school and instead spent his entire life on the

reservation away from the contamination of the outside world. This distinction of education

between the two is ultimately what sends them down two completely separate paths in life. For

example, “Nector came home from boarding school knowing white reading and writing, while

Eli knew the woods” (Erdrich 19). Eli relied on nature to be his teacher, and it benefitted him

greatly in terms of identity formation. He was able to from a deep appreciation for his culture,

one in which was lacking in Nector, and can be seen by their subsequent actions. In the story

“Wild Geese” the contrast between the two is rather apparent, “Eli has a second sense and an

aim I cannot match… Eli usually takes his bottle off into the woods, while I go into town, to the

fiddle dance, and spark the girls” (Erdrich 61). While Nector was indulging in traditionally white

colonial forms of entertainment, Eli felt at home within the woods. Silence was never something

scary to Eli, whereas Nector needed the noise to drown out his own thoughts. Eli’s sense of

connection with the earth is one of the distinctive elements of the Ojibwa identity, and a major

factor to consider when analyzing the differences in identity between Eli and Nector. In the Story

“The Beads”, Eli even picks up Nector’s slack when he was too involved in his booze to be there
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for his family. For example, “He had a soft hushed voice, like he was stalking something very

near. He showed them how to carve, how to listen for the proper birdcall, how to whistle on their

own two fingers like a flute. He taught June” (Erdrich 90). Not only did Eli have this deep

appreciation for his Native culture, but he taught the next generation to do so as well. Eli actively

made it a goal to teach Native traditions to ensure they would not be lost to history. Not only did

he completely embrace his Native identity, but he taught others to do the same.

Eli was also very self-aware, meaning he had the capacity to separate his personal

identity from potentially toxic behaviors. Nector did not possess this ability which is why he is

constantly drinking himself to death, for example “But the brains won’t matter unless I kept him

away from the bottle. He would pour them down the drain, where his liquor went, unless I

stopped the holes, wore him out, dragged him back each time he drank, and tied him to the bed

with strong ropes” (Erdrich 88). Nector needed continued intervention from others to keep him

from drinking. However, with Eli, alcohol was completely separate from his identity, for

example, “Eli drank but never lost his head” (Erdrich 90). Eli taught Nector’s children the true

meaning of Ojibwe culture, when Nector was too drunk to do it himself. He was able to rectify

some of his brother’s failures and ensure that Nector’s contamination would not spill over onto

his children. Eli had this animalistic nature about him, one that went hand in hand with the

Ojibwe culture. He had this extreme connection to his Indigenous identity, that ultimately

allowed him to avoid contamination from the white world and live a long and peaceful life. He

never had to battle himself over his true identity and it showed, “Eli had wizened and toughened

while grandpa was larger, softer, even paler” (Erdrich 27). Nector crumbled under the weight of

two identities. However, as Eli aged he remained sharp, intelligent, and ultimately completely

connected to his Native culture. The creation of a pure Nativist identity is what Erdrich
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ultimately appears to be advocating for. Through Eli she was able to show the benefits of living

away from the contamination of white modern culture, and the dangers that come with attempted

hybridity, as shown through Nector. Eli never questioned who he was at his core, and because of

this he prospered.

Another example where Erdrich endorses the essentialist version of Native identity and

rejects the notion of cultural hybridity, is represented in the characters of King Kashpaw and

Lipsha Morrissey. It’s important to note that King and Lipsha represent the third generation of

Native Americans on the reservation, suggesting that this trend of contamination from white

society is not just a one off occurrence, but a recurring ideology. King Kashpaw is the true

embodiment of white contamination. He is one example of a character who left the reservation

and returned a monster. From the first moment readers meet King in “The World’s Greatest

Fisherman”, he showcased his utter disregard for Native culture, while simultaneously trying to

drown his wife, “He was pushing her face in the sink of cold dishwater. Holding her by the nape

and ears. Her arms were whirling, knocking spoons and knives and bowls out of the drainer. She

struggled powerfully, but he had her” (Erdrich 41). His blatant disregard for the safety of not

only his wife, but others around him, is the audience’s first look into the failed hybridity within

King. It’s apparent from the very beginning that the contamination within him was so deep and

ultimately beyond reconciliation. His complete and utter ignorance for Ojibwa culture did not

end there. Literary critic Andrea Bellehigue sheds more light onto King in her analysis as well,

“This invisibility that allows survival has been interiorized by most mixed-blood characters who

experience their cultural and identity splits as unbearable divisions: King, for instance… his

patched and fake identity fails to give him any substance” (140). King built his identity around

two fractured sides, and this is ultimately what leads him to reject his Native identity.
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Throughout the course of the novel, King has absolutely zero-character development, and is

painted in the same exact light in the very last story as he was in the very first, meaning that he

was never able to find some sort of balance between the two identities, and ultimately ended up

rejecting his Native side in a failed attempt towards assimilation.

King’s contamination from white modernity was so deeply engrained, that he was willing

to turn in his own people, if it meant his own personal advancement. This can clearly be seen in

“Crossing the Water,” where it’s revealed that King had been feeding information about Gerry

Nanapush’s plans to the police, ‘…I confided to him all my plans to escape once, never knowing

he was an apple.’ That is: red on the outside, white on the inside” (Erdrich 319). King valued a

paycheck more than the freedom of his tribemate. Furthermore, demonstrating the fact that he

had bought into this white capitalist society, and was willing to completely abandon his Native

culture if it meant his own personal gain. The fact that his betrayal was against Gerry, a man who

embodied what it means to be Native, is really the final nail in King’s coffin. By turning Gerry

in, King completely rejects his Native culture and is left with a fractured identity, demonstrating

that the mixing of two identities is toxic to the individual. This toxicity within King can clearly

be seen through the examination of his mental state. King is constantly depicted as trapped

within the own recesses of his mind. This behavior is apparent to those around him, and even

noted by Lipsha, “I didn’t hold that against him, since it was done during one of his frequent

leaves of sense” (Erdrich 308). King’s inability to form a singular whole identity creates these

gaps in awareness: moments in time where he is not in control of his own body. Not only did his

fractured identity affect his mental health, but the struggle is also reflected in his physical

appearance as well, for example, “His bones had sunk back in his flesh. The booze was telling on

him. Wear and tear of being mean had worn his temper so it balanced on a silver” (Erdrich 309).
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King’s attempt at assimilation has brought upon this decaying sense of self. The attempted

rejection of his Native identity, ultimately demonstrating the inability of an individual to form a

successfully culturally hybrid identity.

However, Lipsha Morrissey is the total opposite of King; he embodies the ideal Ojibwa

Indigenous identity. One strong example of this is located within the story “Love Medicine.” In

the story it is explained that Lipsha has what is called “the touch.” Which is essentially when a

person is so in tune with the earth they are born with these healing capabilities. This spiritual gift

is something that was only present in individuals with strong connections to their Native identity

for example, “I take my fingers and I snap them on the knots. The medicine flows out of me. The

touch. I run my fingers up the maps of those rivers of veins or I knock very gentle about their

hearts or I make circling motions on their stomachs, and it helps them…” (Erdrich 227). Lipsha

demonstrated his devotion to his tribe through the use of his touch. He consistently worked to

heal others in their times of need, and unlike King, he welcomed the Ojibwe principle of

community. By endorsing nativist culture, Lipsha is also simultaneously denouncing the white

Catholic Church, as stated by McKinny, “He believes that he has seen through the falseness of

the Catholicism the whites have thrust on his people” (157). By rejecting Catholicism, Lipsha

rejects white colonial culture and its attempts to separate him from his true Nativist identity.

While Lipsha might have stumbled along the way, he ultimately recognizes the importance of

embracing one singular identity instead of the mixing of two half identities.

Lipsha’s successful Native identity can further be seen through his rejection of white

society. In the story “Crossing the Water” Lipsha finds himself in the midst of a slight identity

crisis. During this time, Lipsha decides to join the army, however he quickly recognizes his

mistake and runs away, “It gave me a sick chill to think of ending up here, like foam throwed off
 Celarek 18

the waves of the lake, spindrift, all warped and cracked like junk and left to rot” (Erdrich 306).

Lipsha recognizes the detrimental affects the Army can have on individual identity and chooses

to run regardless of the consequences. In this instance the Army is a reflection of white

modernity, and Lipsha’s rejection of it further solidifies his Native identity. This recognition of

potentially contaminating elements is what allows Lipsha to protect his Indigenous side from the

threats of white modernity. At the end of “Crossing the Water” Lipsha is finally able to find

peace on the way back to reservation, “I believe that my home is the only place I belong and was

never interested to leave it, but circumstances forced my hand” (Erdrich 331). This recognition

of his Native identity is paralleled with the discovery who his biological parents are. Not only is

he finally understanding the deeper more spiritual side of himself, but he finally discovers his

parentage as well. This revelation for Lipsha on the way back to the reservation further displays

the rejection of white society and importance of a Nativist identity.

The final pairing of characters is Marie Kashpaw and Lulu Lamartine. In this pairing

Marie is representative of the failed hybrid approach, ultimately showing her contamination from

euro-white society. Marie Kashpaw, once known as Marie Lazarre, originally lived in the white

world, despite having a small amount of Indian blood. However, she marries an Ojibwe man, and

spends the remainder of her life in his world. As a teenager she experienced both physical and

emotional abuse from a nun at the local convent, which is demonstrated in the story “Saint

Marie” for example, “I was weakening. My thoughts were whirling pitifully. The pain had kept

me strong, and as it left me I began to forget it; I couldn’t hold on. I began to wonder if she’d

really scalded me with the kettle” (Erdrich 55). Marie’s contamination stems from her seeking

acceptance from Catholicism, which is representative of white influence. She had gone to the

convent to gain approval from a white society, however when faced with extreme forms of abuse
 Celarek 19

Marie chooses to leave. She returns to the reservation; however, the damage has already been

done. Her contamination morphed within her ultimately creating two separate half identities, one

Indigenous and one modern. These two identities left Marie in this sort of in-between space, not

truly belonging to either world. Marie’s attempt at straddling the fence between the two worlds is

examined further by Bellehigue, “She perceives her Indian heritage as a stain she would like to

clean by becoming a Catholic saint; and yet, once she reaches the Convent, she resists

conversion, torn between “love and hate” for what Sister Leopolda stands for” (140). The abuse

and uncertainty ultimately created the contamination within Marie, that was left unchecked for

years and grew into something that completely separated her from the Ojibwa community.

Despite Marie’s attempts at blending into the Ojibwa world, she only succeeds in further

adopting elements of modern contamination and separating herself from her Native identity.

Marie suffered at the hands of the nuns, and it ultimately had a lifelong impact on her. In “Saint

Marie” Marie is dominated by Leopolda, completely under the force of white modernity. In the

story “The Beads” readers witness Marie ultimately reverse the roles onto June, a child of the

reservation who was under Marie’s care, for example “I grabbed the back of her shirt and yanked

her flying across the field. She was light as a leaf. I tossed her in the house. Then I grabbed the

jaw and packed a handful of soap flakes in her mouth” (Erdrich 89). Instead of handling the

situation with June in a peaceful manner, Marie immediately resorts to violence. Often times

throughout this chapter Marie recognizes the fact that she sees her younger self in June.

However, the decision to dominate June, just like Leopolda dominated her, is a direct reflection

of Marie’s contamination from a white society, and leaves her in the middle ground of two

identities. The middle ground ultimately isolates her from the people she loves and leads to a

long life of struggling between the two identities. The apparent struggle is perfectly identified
 Celarek 20

when Marie is compared to Lulu in the story Love Medicine, “It was the difference between a

house fixed up with paint and picky fence, and a house left to weather away into the soft earth, is

what I’m saying. Lamartine was jacked up, latticed, shuttered and vinyl sided, while grandma

sagged and bulged on her slipped foundations” (Erdrich 235). While Lulu had aged like fine

wine, it’s apparent that time had the opposite effect on Marie. She had the weight of both worlds

on her shoulders, and ultimately crumbled because of it.

However, what’s interesting about Marie, is that the second section of the story “The

Beads” was not originally included in the first edition of Love Medicine. It was later added into

the second edition of the novel that was published in 1992. While there are many theories as to

why this section was added, it is most commonly assumed that it was so Erdrich could make a

case towards a successful hybrid character within her novel. In “The Beads” Marie goes through

a very demanding natural birth. Not only is the fact that the birth was natural significant, but

Marie ultimately has to relinquish control to two women who are very in touch with their Native

identity, for example “I was washed and smoothed, put back underneath my covers in a fresh

robe. The two women did all of these things quickly, without wasting a moment” (Erdrich 100).

Fleur Pillager and Rushes Bear are two female characters that ultimately embody what it means

to be Native. By helping Marie, they appear to be accepting her into their community, thus

gesturing towards the idea of Marie being a successful hybrid. However, although Erdrich added

this section in later editions of her novel, the events taking place within the chapter are not

interwoven with the rest of the book. While this section might give the illusion of hybridity, the

failure to interweave this section’s events with the rest of the book suggests that this one event

was not enough for Marie’s two polar identities to form one successful hybrid identity.
 Celarek 21

Marie’s counterpart is Lulu. Lulu Lamartine is a purely Ojibwa women who is

representative of the traditional Native identity, where one is only Indigenous to the extent that

one is not modern. While Lulu may have been negatively received by her peers, the way in

which Erdrich speaks of Lulu is in a positive light. Despite whatever was thrown at Lulu, she

always remained connected to her Ojibwe identity. For example, in “The Good Tears”, “They

used to say Lulu Lamartine was like a cat, loving no one, only purring to get what she wanted.

But that’s not true. I was in love with the whole world and all that lived in its rainy arms”

(Erdrich 272). Lulu’s connection to the earth is ultimately what allowed her to stay rooted in her

beliefs, and grow into this strong and purely Ojibwe woman. Even from a young age Lulu found

comfort surrounded by nature, and would constantly seek out that personal connection with it,

for example, “In this way I would slip my body to the earth, like a heavy sack, and for a few

moments I would blend in with all that forced my heart” (Erdrich 273). Nature to Lulu was a

consistent soothing presence. To her it was not this inanimate element, but alive; constantly

changing and lending comfort to her when she needed it most. Her relationship with it is

ultimately what allowed her to shape her identity around her Native culture. She embraced

Ojibwe tradition, counter acting traditional white gender and family norms. She was the boss of

her life and truly was never going to let anyone take that away from her. An example of this can

be seen in the story “Lulu’s Boys”, “Because her face was soft and yet alert, vigilant as a small

cat’s, plump and tame but with a wildness in its breast. Beverly had always felt exposed, preyed

on, underdressed around her, even before the game in which she’d stripped him naked…” (112).

Lulu never submitted to male authority, and instead welcomed the Ojibwe’s form of an

egalitarian society, which ultimately plays into the notion of her purely Ojibwe identity. She
 Celarek 22

always made her presence known, which allowed her to thrive in a society built on the

deconstruction of a traditional modern family.

Lulu has the ability to command a room, and was so confident in her Ojibwa identity that

she was not afraid of being alone or making others uncomfortable. Unlike Marie, who had this

constant and crippling fear of being alone, Lulu was always wholly unapologetically herself, and

embodied this essentialist approach to Nativist identity that Erdrich is advocating for throughout

the course of Love Medicine. This principle can clearly be seen in Lulu’s rejection of white

politics. In the story “The Good Tears” audience’s witness elements of Lulu’s mistrust of the U.S

government, “I never let the United States census in my door, even though they say it’s good for

Indians. Well, quote me. I say that every time they counted us they knew the precise number to

get rid of” (Erdrich 278). Lulu kept the government at arm’s length, and understood that her

Native culture had to remain separate from the white world, or else it ran the risk of extinction

altogether. As the “Good Tears” continues, this unease of the government turns into an outright

rejection of white politics when the government attempts to kick Lulu off her land, “The United

States Government throws crumbs on the floor, and you go down so far to lick up those dollars

that you turn your own people off the land. I got mad. ‘What’s that but ka-ka?’ I yelled at them”

(Erdrich 280). When given the Government order to hand over her land, Lulu did not just roll

over and accept the decision, she fought it. Lulu was adamant that she would rather expose

herself to the entire tribe and admit to who the fathers were of her children, then give up her

land. If she was going down, she was going to go down fighting. This refusal to give in to white

influence is ultimately what separates Lulu from Marie and the contamination of white

modernity. Her ability to stay rooted in her Ojibwe identity, despite the pressures from the
 Celarek 23

outside world is what allows Lulu’s identity to flourish and ultimately reject this notion of

cultural hybridity.

However similar to Marie, Erdrich also added a story entitled “The Island” in the second

edition of her novel (1992) that attempts to alter the way the audience views Lulu. In this story

Lulu travels to an island to form a romantic relationship with Moses pillager; a man who is

viewed as completely embodying the nativist identity. The island itself is separate from the

reservation however it is completely void of any contamination from the white world, and is

instead very primitive. The island itself seems to embody the true meaning of an essentialist

environment. While Lulu stayed at the island long enough to have a child with Moses, she

eventually left and returned to the reservation. The idea of Lulu leaving a completely Native

space to return to the reservation, a space where elements have been contaminated over time by

white modernity, suggests that Lulu is also a hybrid character. The story implies that Lulu needs

that hint of white contamination in order to function properly, thus blurring the notion of her

having a completely Nativist identity. However, it still is not enough to suggest Lulu as being a

successful hybrid character. While the island was a completely natural environment it still had its

flaws. Moses himself was very separatist, and because the island was so primitive it became very

isolating as well. One of the main elements of Ojibwe culture is the idea and importance of

community. On the island there was none of that, Lulu and Moses were completely alone. As a

result, Lulu returning to the reservation does not suggest a hybrid identity, but furthers

emphasizes the notion of her having a completely Indigenous identity. The inclusion of this story

reflects both Erdrich’s later desire towards hybridity, and ultimately her inability to succeed in

doing so.
 Celarek 24

After looking at the three pairs of characters, it is apparent that the novel is advocating

for an essentialist notion of cultural identity, where an individual is Ojibwe to the extent that one

is not contaminated by white modernity. Each attempted hybrid character ultimately reveals why

hybridity is not a valuable option for Indigenous individuals. Nector proves, that straddling the

fence between two identities creates two fractured half identities, leaving him stuck in this

constant in-between state, never really belonging to either side. He ultimately crumbles under the

weight of his fractured identities, only truly finding peace in losing his mind. Not only was this

notion of failed hybridity consistent with the first generation of characters, but the trend

continues in the third generation of characters as well. King, being representative of the third

generation, ultimately attempts to assimilate into the white world, completely abandoning his

Ojibwe culture. Once again readers can see his individual identity become jaded and coarse from

white contamination, leaving him with an incomplete self that ultimately not only affects his

mental capacity, but his physical state of being as well. Marie’s identity formation is similar to

Nector’s, her difference being that while she is of mixed blood, she leans more towards the white

side of her heritage. In her youth, Marie tries to reject her Native side and turned to the convent,

as a form of white influence. She ultimately consumes elements of white contamination that stick

with her even after she returns to the reservation. While certain stories like “The Beads” attempt

to reconcile Marie’s identity, the damage has already been done, and the story remains a bit

detached from the rest of the novel, ultimately showcasing how white modernity is toxic to an

individual’s cultural and tribal identity.

However, it is through the characterization of Eli, Lipsha, and Lulu, that audiences can

clearly see successful identity formation, when individuals are separate from, and even reject

elements of white modernity. Eli remained on the reservation his whole life, and embraced
 Celarek 25

Native culture. It allowed him not only to create his own successful cultural identity, but to teach

the next generation to do the same. Lipsha displays the expanded notion of personhood through

his gift of the touch, and ultimately showcases how he discovered his true identity when he

leaves white society and returns to the reservation. He displays how there needs to be separation

from the white world in order to form a successful identity. Throughout the course of the novel

Lulu displayed the importance of having an innate connection to nature. Her identity formation

was intertwined with elements of the natural world, that ultimately allowed her to embrace

Indigenous culture, and reject attempted contamination from white society. Although the story

“The Island” makes an attempt at showcasing Lulu as a hybrid character, ultimately it fails when

taking into account this separatist society Moses had created. Lulu shows her need for

community within in a tribe, displaying an all-consuming Nativist identity. It is through these

characters that Erdrich ultimately displays the damaging effects white society can have on

individual and tribal identity. While the novel may appear to gesture towards hybridity, it is the

appearance of characters like Nector, King, and Marie that showcase the need for an essentialist

formation of cultural and tribal identity.

 Celarek 26

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