WOLLO UNIVERSITY KIOT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTEMENT

THERMAL ENGINEERING STREAM SECTION A
MATERIAL HANDLING ASSIGNMENT
GROUP MEMBER
1 Endalamaw Addis………………………0573/08
2 Getaw Kassaw……………………........0745/08
3 Teshome Berhe………………………….1579/08
4 Yitaseb Zeleke……………………………1728/08
5 K/Mariam Getwoy……………………..0977/08
6 Wubetu Abiye………………………......1677/08
 1. ARRESTING GEAR
An Arresting gear, or arrestor gear, is a mechanical system used to rapidly decelerate an aircraft as it lands.
Arresting gear on aircraft carriers is an essential component of naval aviation.

1.1 OPERATION
A normal arrestment is accomplished when the arresting hook of an incoming aircraft engages one of the deck pendants.

When a landing aircraft engages a deck pendant, the force of the forward motion of the landing aircraft is transferred to a purchase cable which
is routed via sheaves to the arresting engine, located in a machinery room below the flight deck or on either side of the runway.
As the deck pendant and the purchase cable are pulled out by the aircraft being arrested, the kinetic energy of the aircraft is transferred to
mechanical energy of the cables, and the arresting engine transfers the mechanical energy of the cables to hydraulic energy.
The arresting engine brings about a smooth, controlled stop of the landing aircraft.
At the completion of the arrestment, the aircraft arresting hook is disengaged from the deck pendant, which is then retracted to its normal
position.

1.2 COMPONENTS
The major systems that make up typical arresting gear are:-

The hook cable or cross deck pendant

 Purchase cables or tapes
 Sheaves and
Arresting engines
1.CROSS DECK PENDANT
Cross deck pendants are flexible steel cables which are spanned across the landing area to be engaged by the arresting hook of an incoming
aircraft.
On aircraft carriers there are either three or four cables, numbered 1-4 from after to forward. Pendants are made of 1 inch (25 mm), 1-1/4 (32
mm) inch or 1-3/8 inch (35mm) diameter wire rope.
The arresting cables are removed and replaced after each 125 arrested landings.
The wire supports on carriers are merely curved steel leaf springs that can flex to allow an aircraft to taxi over the installed deck pendant.
On land based systems, "donut" shaped rubber supports raise the cable off the runway surface a minimum of 2 inches (51 mm).
2. PURCHASE CABLES OR TAPES
The purchase cable is a wire rope that looks very similar to the arresting cable. They are much longer, however, and are not designed to be
easily removed.
There are two purchase cables per arresting cable, and they connect to each end of the arresting wire.
Purchase cables connect the arresting wire to the arresting gear engines and "pay out" as the arresting wire is engaged by the aircraft.
As an incoming aircraft engages the deck pendant, the purchase cable transmits the force of the landing aircraft from the deck gear to the
arresting engine.
The pendant (arresting wire) is "swaged" (attached) to the purchase cable by means of a loop created with zinc heated to 1,000 degrees
Fahrenheit.

3. SHEAVES
Purchase cables or tapes run through sheaves in the flight deck or alongside of the runway to the arresting engines.
Damper sheaves act as hydraulic shock absorbers that provide for the increased landing speeds.

4. ARRESTING ENGINES
Each pendant has its own engine systems that absorb and dispel the energies developed when a landing aircraft is arrested.
Carriers use hydro-pneumatic systems, each weighing 43 tons, where in oil fluid is forced out of a cylinder by a ram (that is connected to the
purchase cable) through a control valve.
A major development in arresting gear was the constant run out control valve, which controls the fluid flow from the engine cylinder to the
accumulator and is designed to stop all aircraft with the same amount of run out regardless of the weight and speed.
 The aircraft's weight is set by the arresting gear engine operator.
 The operator is given the weight of the aircraft by the air officer in Primary Flight Control.
The operator then sets the Constant Run out Control Valve to the appropriate weight setting for that aircraft.
The constant run out valve (CROV) stops the aircraft (as opposed to hydraulic pressure).
Permanent and expeditionary land based systems usually consist of two arresting engines located on either side of the runway.
The arresting engines apply braking force to reels holding the purchase tapes, which in turn slow the aircraft and bring it to a stop.
The two most common methods used by land based arresting engines to apply the braking force are the rotary friction brake and the rotary
hydraulic (water twister) systems.
a. The rotary friction brake is simply a hydraulic pump coupled to the reel which applies a graduated pressure to multi-disc brakes
mounted on the reel.
b. The rotary hydraulic system is a turbine inside a water/glycol filled housing coupled to the reel.
Excessive run out during an arrestment is a condition known as a "two-block." This name is derived from naval parlance when all the line
has been pulled through a pulley system, the two pulley blocks are touching, hence "two blocked". Excessive run out can be caused by
improper arresting gear settings,
1. Excess aircraft gross weight,
2. Excess aircraft engagement speed, or
3. Excess airplane thrust applied during the arrestment.
5. SPRAY-TYPE ARREST GEAR
In 1957 the concept of a piston being pulled through a tube of water was first purposed as a cheap arrest gear system for land airbases.
 In the early 1960s, the British took this basic concept and developed a spray-type arrest gear system for both land and sea use.
 The engine had hydraulic cylinders that moved through water filled pipe, with a smaller pipe alongside that has holes of various sizes along
its length.
 Here there was no theoretical weight limit, but there was a speed limit.

6. BARRICADE
The barricade is an emergency recovery system used only when a normal (pendant) arrestment cannot be made.
The barricade is normally in a stowed condition and rigged only when required.
To rig a barricade, it is stretched across the flight deck between stanchions, which are raised from the flight deck.
The barricade webbing consists of upper and lower horizontal loading straps joined to each other at the ends.
Five vertical engaging straps, spaced 20 feet apart, are connected to each upper and lower load strap.
The barricade webbing is raised to a height of approximately 20 feet.
The barricade webbing engages the wings of the landing aircraft, wherein energy is transmitted from the barricade webbing through the
purchase cable to the arresting engine.
Following a barricade arrestment, the webbing and deck cables are discarded and the stanchions are lowered back into their recessed slots.
 2. FRICTION BUFER STOPF
A buffer stop is a device to prevent railway vehicles from going past the end of a physical section of track.

The design of the buffer stop is dependent, in part, on the kind of couplings that the railway uses, since the coupling gear is the first part of
the vehicle that the buffer stops touches.

The term "buffer stop" is of British origin, since railways in Great Britain principally use buffer-and-screw couplings between vehicles.

2.1 TYPES
Several different types of buffer stop have been developed. They differ depending on the type of coupler used and on the intended application.

1. ENERGY-ABSORBING
Largely because of its mass, a train transfers an enormous amount of kinetic energy in a collision with a buffer stop. Rigid buffers can only
safely cope with very low speed impacts (i.e., nearly stationary).
To improve stopping performance, a way of dissipating this energy is needed, through compression or friction.

Following a buffer stop accident at Frankfurt am Main in 1902, the Rawie company developed a large range of energy-absorbing buffer stops .
2. DOWTY RETARDERS
When it is desired to slow or stop moving trains, without erecting a solid buffer stop, dowty retarders may be employed.
They press upwards against the wheels, and may optionally be turned off as required. Examples
1. Raja Trains Depot in Tehran
2.Stopping speed: 20 km/h (12 mph)
3. Stopping distance: 20 m (66 ft.).
3. WHEEL STOP
Wheel stops are used to stop slow moving trains from continuing down a level track section.

2.2 ACCIDENTS
There were more accidents happen due to luck buffer stop mechanism
For example
22 October 1895 – Gare Montparnasse, Paris, France – express train overruns buffer stop and falls into street below.
 3. BRAKE SYSTEM
3.1 WORKING OF BRAKES
A common misconception about brakes is that brakes squeeze against a drum or disc, and the pressure of the squeezing action slows the
vehicle down. This is in fact a part of the reason for slowing down a vehicle.

Actually brakes use friction of brake shoes and drums to convert kinetic energy developed by the vehicle into heat energy.

When we apply brakes, the pads or shoes that press against the brake drums or rotor convert kinetic energy into thermal energy via
friction.

Thus brakes are essentially a mechanism to change energy types.

3.2 TYPES OF BRAKES

MECHANICAL BRAKES

•DRUM BRAKES

•DISC BRAKES

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
POWER BRAKES
•AIR BRAKES
•AIR HYDRAULIC BRAKES
•VACCUM BRAKES
•ELECTRIC BRAKES
BRAKE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
3.2.1 HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Hydraulics is the use of a liquid under pressure to transfer force or motion, or to increase an applied force.
The pressure on a liquid is called HYRAULIC PRESSURE.
And the brakes which are operated by means of hydraulic pressure are called HYDRAULIC BRAKES.
These brakes are based on the principle of Pascal’s law.

PASCAL’S LAW
The pressure exerted anywhere in a mass of confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions throughout the liquid.
Applied in hydraulic lifts, hydraulic brakes etc.
MASTER CYLINDER IN ACTION
When we press the brake pedal, it pushes on primary piston through a linkage.
Pressure is built in the cylinder and the lines as the brake pedal is depressed further.
The pressure between the primary and secondary piston forces the secondary piston to compress the fluid in its circuit.
If the brakes are operating properly, the pressure wll be same in both the circuits.
If there is a leak in one of the circuits, that circuit will not be able to maintain pressure.
USE OF LIQUIDS INSTEAD OF GASES
Liquids are used in hydraulic systems because liquids are incompressible.
If we use a gas, on increasing the pressure, the gas will be compressed into a smaller volume due to which there will be no transmission of
force or motion.

ADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES

Equal braking effort to all the four wheels
Less rate of wear (due to absence of joints compared to mechanical brakes)
Force multiplication (or divisions) very easily just by changing the size of one piston and cylinder relative to other.

DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES

Even slight leakage of air into the breaking system makes it useless.
The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leaks out.

3.2.2 MECHANICAL BRAKES

1.DISC BRAKES
In a disc brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it presses against a piston.
The piston in turn squeezes two brake pads against the disc (rotor), which is attached to wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop.
2. DRUM BRAKES
The drum brake has a metal brake drum that encloses the brake assembly at each wheel.
Two curved brake shoes expand outward to slow or stop the drum which rotates with the wheel.
WORKING OF DRUM BRAKES
Drum brakes work on the same principle as the disc brakes.
Shoes press against a rotating surface.
In this system that surface is called a drum.
Drum brake also has an adjuster mechanism, an emergency brake mechanism and lots of springs.
The shoes are pulled away from the drum by the springs when the brakes are released.

4. SHOE OR BLOCK BRAKE

In a shoe brake the rotating drum is brought in contact with the shoe by suitable force.
The contacting surface of the shoe is coated with friction material.
Different types of shoe brakes are used, single shoe brake, double shoe brake, internal expanding brake, external expanding brake.

4.1 SINGLE SHOE BRAKE

The force needed to secure contact is supplied by a lever.
When a force F is applied to the shoe (see figure 12.1.2a ) frictional force proportional to the applied force Ffr = μ’F develops, where μ’
depends of friction material and the geometry of the shoe.
Though the exact nature of the contact pressure distribution is unknown, an approximation (based on wear considerations) is made as

( )=
Where the angle is measured from the centerline of the shoe. If Coulomb’s law of friction is assumed to hold good, then
( )=
Since the net normal force of the drum is F, one has
 Where R = radius of the brake drum b = width of the shoe

The total frictional torque is: θ

If the total frictional force is assumed to be a concentrated one, then the equivalent force becomes:-

A simple calculation yields,

It may be seen that for very small value of , = ′ Even when, = 30°, ′= 1.0453 .
Usually if the contact angle is below60°, the two values of friction coefficient are taken to be equal.
Consider, now single shoe brakes as shown in figures 12.1.3(a) and 3(b).
Suppose a force P is applied at the end of a lever arm with length l.
The shoe placed at a distance x from the hinge experiences a normal force N and a friction force F, whose direction depends upon the sense
of rotation of the drum.
(a) For clockwise rotation of the brake wheel,
 Nx + Fa = Pl

(b) for anticlockwise rotation of the brake wheel,

Nx – Fa = Pl
 Where a is the distance between the hinge and the line of action of F and is measured positive when F acts below point O as shown in
the figure. Using Coulomb’s law of friction the following results are obtained, (a) For clockwise rotation,

(b) for anticlockwise rotation

It may be noted that for anticlockwise rotating brake,

If, , then the force P has negative value implying that a force is to applied in the opposite direction to bring the lever to equilibrium.
Without any force the shoe will, in this case, draw the lever closer to the drum by itself. This kind of brake is known as ‘self-locking, brake.
Two points deserve attention.
(1) If a < 0, the drum brake with clockwise rotation becomes self-energizing and if friction is large may be self-locking.
(2) If the brake is self-locking for one direction, it is never self-locking for the opposite direction. This makes the self-locking brakes useful
for ‘back stops of the rotors.
4.2 DOUBLE SHOE BRAKE
Since in a single shoe brake normal force introduces transverse loading on the shaft on which the brake drum is mounted two shoes are often
used to provide braking torque.
The opposite forces on two shoes minimize the transverse loading. The analysis of the double shoe brake is very similar to the single shoe
brake.

4.3 EXTERNAL EXPANDING SHOE BRAKE

An external expanding shoe brake consists of two symmetrically placed shoes having inner surfaces coated with frictional lining.
Each shoe can rotate about respective fulcrum (say, 1 and 2). A schematic diagram with only one shoe is presented below in the figure.
When the shoes are engaged, non-uniform pressure develops between the friction lining and the drum.
The pressure is assumed to be proportional to wear which is in turn proportional to the perpendicular distance from pivoting point (O1N in
figure 12.1.4).
A simple geometrical consideration reveals that this distance is proportional to sine of the angle between the line joining the pivot and the
center of the drum and the line joining the center and the chosen point. This means:-
( )= ,
where the angle is measured from line OO1 and is limited as
 1≤ ≤ 2

The following equation is resulted for clockwise rotation of the drum

1 = −
Where F1 is the force applied at the end of the shoe, and
1 1
2 2 1 2 1 2
 = [ − )− ( 2 − 2 ),
where δ is the distance between the center and the pivot (OO1 in figure 12.1.4) and is the distance from the pivot to the line of action of the
force F1(O1C in the figure). In a similar manner the force to be applied at the other shoe can be obtained from the equation
2 = +
The net braking torque in this case is
= 2( 1− 2)

4.4 INTERNAL EXPANDING SHOE BRAKE

Here the brake shoes are engaged with the internal surface of the drum. The analysis runs in the similar fashion as that of an external shoe
brake. The forces required are

1= + /

2= − / ′, respectively.
One of the important members of the expanding shoe brakes is the anchor pin. The size of the pin is to be properly selected depending upon
the face acting on it during brake engagement.