Math links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5jwXThH6fg4

arithmetic sequence

2,4,6,8,10….is an arithmetic sequence with the common difference 2.

If the first term of an arithmetic sequence is a1 and the common difference is d, then the nth term of
the sequence is given by:

an=a1+(n−1)d

An arithmetic series is the sum of an arithmetic sequence. We find the sum by adding the first, a1 and
last term, an, divide by 2 in order to get the mean of the two values and then multiply by the number of
values, n:

Sn=n2(a1+an)

Example

Find the sum of the following arithmetic series 1,2,3…..99,100

We have a total of 100 values, hence n=100. Our first value is 1 and our last is 100. We plug these values
into our formula and get:

S100=1002(1+100)=5050

Arithmetic Series

An arithmetic series is a series whose related sequence is arithmetic. It results from adding the terms of
an arithmetic sequence .

Example 1:

Finite arithmetic sequence: 5,10,15,20,25,...,200

Related finite arithmetic series: 5+10+15+20+25+...+200

Written in sigma notation: ∑k=1405k

Example 2:

Infinite arithmetic sequence: 3,7,11,15,19,...

Related infinite arithmetic series: 3+7+11+15+19+...

Written in sigma notation: ∑n=1∞(4n−1)

To find the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence, use the formula

Sn=n(a1+an)2 ,

where n is the number of terms, a1 is the first term, and an is the last term.

Example 3:

Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the arithmetic series if a1=5 and a20=62 .

S10=20(5+62)2        =670

Example 4:

Find the sum of the first 40 terms of the arithmetic series

2+5+8+11+... .

First find the 40th term:

a40=a1+(n−1)d        =2+39(3)        =119

Then find the sum:

Sn=n(a1+an)2S10=40(2+119)2        =2420

Example 5:

Find the sum:

∑k=150(3k+2)

First find a1 and a50 :

a1=3(1)+2=5a50=3(50)+2=152

Then find the sum:

Sk=n(a1+ak)2S50=50(5+152)2        =3925
Definition Of Geometric Sequence

Geometric sequence is a sequence in which each term after the first term a is obtained by multiplying
the previous term by a constant r, called the common ratio. It is obvious that a ≠ 0 and r ≠ 0 or 1

Example: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . is a geometric sequence

Each term of this geometric sequence is multiplied by the common ratio 2

More About Geometric Sequence

The general form of a geometric sequence with first term a and common ratio r is

a, ar, ar2, ar3 ................. arn−1

The general term or nth term of a geometric sequence is arn−1

Geometric series is the indicated sum of the terms of a geometric sequence.

For the geometric sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, the corresponding geometric series is1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32

Ques: Find the 5th term of the geometric sequence 1/3,1,3.......

Choices:

A. 9

B. 3

C. 81

D. 27

Correct Answer: D

Solution:

Step 1: In a geometric sequence, the nth term is given by an = a1 rn - 1

Step 2: To find the fifth term, substitute n = 5, a1 = 1/3 and r = 3 in the formula

Step 3: The 5th term is [Substitute and simplify.]

In mathematics, a geometric series is a series with a constant ratio between successive terms. For
example, the series is geometric, because each successive term can be obtained by multiplying the
previous term by ½

An infinite geometric series is the sum of an infinite geometric sequence . This series would have no last
term. The general form of the infinite geometric series is a1+a1r+a1r2+a1r3+... , where a1 is the first
term and r is the common ratio. We can find the sum of all finite geometric series.

A harmonic progression is a sequence of real numbers formed by taking the reciprocals of an arithmetic
progression. Equivalently, it is a sequence of real numbers such that any term in the sequence is the
harmonic mean of its two neighbors.

Harmonic Mean

Harmonic mean is defined as the value obtained when the number of values in the data set is divided by
the sum of its reciprocals. Moreover, it is considered as one of the measures of central tendency.

Let x1,x2,...,xn be the set of observations, then the harmonic mean is given by,

where n represents the total number of observations.

For grouped data, the harmonic mean is,

For ungrouped data, the harmonic mean is,

Harmonic mean is applied when the set of observations is in the form of fractions or has extreme values.
Also, stability of the data set with outliers is more when harmonic mean is applied.

For example, consider 2, 3, 5, 7, and 60 with number of observations as 5.

But, the arithmetic mean is,

Hence, it is clear that when there are extreme observations, the harmonic mean is applied.

In mathematics, harmonic series is an infinite series. That is, the partial sums attained by adding the
successive terms grow without limit, or, placed an additional way, this sum will infinity.

In sequence and series, we deal with various types of series and sequences such as geometric series and
sequences and arithmetic series and sequences. In this article will learn about harmonic series in detail.

Definition

The harmonic series is one of the most important infinite series of mathematics. This is the sum of
reciprocals of the positive integers. Harmonic series is represented as below:
∑∞n=1 1n = 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + ................

Diverges

Harmonic series is purely divergence series, which diverges to infinity. We can prove this using integral
test and comparison test.

Consider nth partial summation notation of harmonic series:

∑nk=1 1k = 1 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + ......+1n

As n tends to infinity, its sum diverges to infinity.

i.e. ∑∞k=1 1k = 1 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + ......

=∞

Formula

The partial sum formula for the harmonic series is as:

∑∞n=1 1n = 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + ................ = 1 + 12 + 13 + 14 + ................

= n(n+1)2

Proof

This concept can be proved by various ways, here will discuss about two tests: comparison test and
integral test.

Integral Test:

Let us prove the harmonic series diverges by comparing its sum with an improper integral. Consider an
arrangement of rectangle, in which each rectangle is 1n units high and 1 unit wide.

Harmonic Series

Root (of a polynomial)

The roots of a polynomial are those values of the variable that cause the polynomial to evaluate to zero.

For example, to find the roots of

3 x 2 − 27

We are trying find find what value (or values) of x will make it come out to zero. To do this we set the
polynomial to zero in the form of an equation:

3 x 2 − 27 = 0

Then we just solve the equation. Add 27 to both sides:

3 x 2 = 27

Divide through by 3:

x 2 =

27

Take the square root of both sides:

x = √ 9

x = ± 3

So this polynomial has two roots: plus three and negative 3. Both will cause the polynomial to have a
value of 3.

Graphically

As shown below, the roots of a polynomial are the values of x that make the polynomial zero, so they
are where the graph crosses the x-axis, since this is where the y value (the result of the polynomial) is
zero. The roots are the two green dots.

Graph showing the roots of a polynomial

You can interactively explore graphs like this at Quadratic explorer. There, you can adjust the polynomial
with sliders to see the effect on the curve and see where the roots come out.

Algebraic Division

Introduction

The process for dividing one polynomial by another is very similar to that for dividing one number by
another.
There are two ways to divide polynomials but we are going to concentrate on the most common
method here: The algebraic long method or simply the traditional method of dividing algebraic
expression.

Algebraic Long Method

Here are the steps in dividing polynomials using the long method:

Arrange the indices of the polynomial in descending order. Replace the missing term(s) with 0.

Divide the first term of the dividend (the polynomial to be divided) by the first term of the divisor. This
gives the first term of the quotient.

Multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient.

Subtract the product from the dividend then bring down the next term. The difference and the next
term will be the new dividend. Note: Remember the rule in subtraction "change the sign of the
subtrahend then proceed to addition".

Repeat step 2 – 4 to find the second term of the quotient.

Continue the process until a remainder is obtained. This can be zero or is of lower index than the divisor.

If the divisor is a factor of the dividend, you will obtain a remainder equal to zero. If the divisor is not a
factor of the dividend, you will obtain a remainder whose index is lower than the index of the divisor.

Examples

Perform this long division: :

Perform this long division: :

Perform this long division: :
using the remainder theorem to evaluate polynomials

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IgUGZtFrhaA

How to Use the Theorem

Let's take the function f(x) = x^4 + 3x^3 - 6x^2 - 6x + 8. Suppose you were told to evaluate it for x = 3.
You could spend the time to plug in a 3 for every x (all four of them) listed above. Then you could
perform the order of operations (PEMDAS anyone?) to evaluate all five terms. Finally, you would
combine all the like terms to get the final answer for f(3).

But it's so much quicker and easier to use the remainder theorem. Simply setup synthetic division where
you will divide x^4 + 3x^3 - 6x^2 - 6x + 8 by x - 3, and you'll have you answer in no time. Remember, that
you will divide by x - 3 (not x + 3) because a = 3 in this example and the remainder theorem is based on
dividing by x - a (not x + a). You should get 98 as the remainder, which means that f(3) = 98. The work is
shown below.

Remainder Theorem Example 1

Now, let's evaluate the same function for x = -4. You can use the same process of dividing x^4 + 3x^3 -
6x^2 - 6x + 8 by x + 4. Note, that in this example, since a = -4, x - a will be x - (-4), or x + 4.

After you perform the synthetic division, you should notice several things. The first is that the remainder
is 0; therefore, the remainder theorem tells you that f(-4) = 0. However, since the remainder is 0 (and
not any other number), there is something

DEFINITION OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/polynomial-functions-27

What is a Vertical Translation?

Vertically translating a graph is equivalent to shifting the base graph up or down in the direction of the y-
axis. A graph is translated k units vertically by moving each point on the graph k units vertically.

Definition

For the base function f (x) and a constant k, the function given by
g (x) = f (x) + k;

can be sketched by shifting f (x) k units vertically.

The value of k determines the direction of the shift. Specifically,

if k > 0, the base graph shifts k units upward, and

if k < 0, the base graph shifts k units downward.

Examples of Vertical Translations

Consider the following base functions,

(1) f (x) = 3x2,

(2) g(x) = 4x -1.

The graphical representation of function (1), f (x), is a parabola. What do you suppose the graph of

y1 (x) = f (x) - 8looks like? Using the definition of f (x), we can write y1 (x) as

y1 (x) = f (x) - 8 = 3x2 - 8.

Based on the definition of vertical shift, the graph of y1 (x) should look like the graph of f (x), shifted
down 8 units. Take a look at the graphs of f (x) and y1 (x).
The graphical representation of function (2), g (x), is a line with a slope of 4 and a y -intercept at (0, -1).
What would the graph of

y2(x) = g (x) + 7

look like? Using our knowledge of vertical shifts, the graph of y2(x) should look like the base graph g (x)
sifted up 7 units. We can write y2(x) as,

y2(x) = g (x) + 7 = 4x -1 + 7 = 4x + 6

Therefore, the y-intercept has moved up 7 units, from (0,-1) for g(x) to (0,6) for y2(x), as shown in the
following graphs.

*****

In the next section, we will explore horizontal translations.

http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biomath/tutorials/Transformations/HorizontalTranslations.html

https://www.purplemath.com/modules/intrcept.htm

http://www.icoachmath.com/math_dictionary/intercept.html

What's "end behavior"?

The end behavior of a function fff describes the behavior of the graph of the function at the "ends" of
the xxx-axis.

In other words, the end behavior of a function describes the trend of the graph if we look to the right
end of the xxx-axis (as xxx approaches +\infty+∞plus, infinity) and to the left end of the xxx-axis (as xxx
approaches -\infty−∞minus, infinity).
For example, consider this graph of the polynomial function fff. Notice that as you move to the right on
the xxx-axis, the graph of fff goes up. This means, as xxx gets larger and larger, f(x)f(x)f, left parenthesis,
x, right parenthesis gets larger and larger as well.

Mathematically, we write: as x\rightarrow +\inftyx→+∞x, right arrow, plus, infinity, f(x)\rightarrow

+\inftyf(x)→+∞f, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right arrow, plus, infinity. (Say, "as xxx approaches
positive infinity, f(x)f(x)f, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis approaches positive infinity.")

On the other end of the graph, as we move to the left along the xxx-axis (imagine xxx approaching
-\infty−∞minus, infinity), the graph of fff goes down. This means as xxx gets more and more negative,
f(x)f(x)f, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis also gets more and more negative.

Mathematically, we write: as x\rightarrow -\inftyx→−∞x, right arrow, minus, infinity, f(x)\rightarrow

-\inftyf(x)→−∞f, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right arrow, minus, infinity. (Say, "as xxx
approaches negative infinity, f(x)f(x)f, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis approaches negative
infinity.")

Check your understanding

1) This is the graph of y=g(x)y=g(x)y, equals, g, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis.

What is the end behavior of ggg?

Choose 1 answer:

Choose 1 answer:

(Choice A)

As x \rightarrow +\inftyx→+∞x, right arrow, plus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow +\inftyg(x)→+∞g, left
parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right arrow, plus, infinity, and as x \rightarrow -\inftyx→−∞x, right
arrow, minus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow +\inftyg(x)→+∞g, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right
arrow, plus, infinity.

(Choice B)

B
As x \rightarrow +\inftyx→+∞x, right arrow, plus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow +\inftyg(x)→+∞g, left
parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right arrow, plus, infinity, and as x \rightarrow -\inftyx→−∞x, right
arrow, minus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow -\inftyg(x)→−∞g, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right
arrow, minus, infinity.

(Choice C)

As x \rightarrow +\inftyx→+∞x, right arrow, plus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow -\inftyg(x)→−∞g, left
parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right arrow, minus, infinity, and as x \rightarrow -\inftyx→−∞x, right
arrow, minus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow +\inftyg(x)→+∞g, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right
arrow, plus, infinity.

(Choice D)

As x \rightarrow +\inftyx→+∞x, right arrow, plus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow -\inftyg(x)→−∞g, left
parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right arrow, minus, infinity, and as x \rightarrow -\inftyx→−∞x, right
arrow, minus, infinity, g(x) \rightarrow -\inftyg(x)→−∞g, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, right
arrow, minus, infinity.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra2/x2ec2f6f830c9fb89:poly-
graphs/x2ec2f6f830c9fb89:poly-end-behavior/a/end-behavior-of-polynomials