The Holocene 15,8 (2005) pp.

1236-1244

A Holocene record from a former coastal

lagoon in Bahia Kino, Gulf of California,
Mexico
M. Caballero,l* M.C. Peinalba,2** M. Martinez,1
B. Ortega-Guerrerol and L. Vazquez'
('Instituto de

Geofisica, UNAM; Universitaria, Mexico, D.F,

Mexico; 2Instituto de Ecologia, UNAM, Estacion Regional del Noroeste, Apdo.
Postal 1354, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico)
Received 5 March 2004; revised manuscript accepted 9 May 2005

Abstract: A 10-m-long core was recovered from the coastal flood plain on the eastern margin of the Gulf of
California (Bahia Kino, Sonora). Sediments were analysed for loss-on-ignition, magnetic susceptibility,
pollen, diatoms, ostracodes and foraminifera. Three levels were dated by 14C. The combined data suggest
that the site was flooded during the middle Holocene as sea level increased. At about 6600 yr BP the area
was a freshwater to brackish marsh dominated by Typha domingensis and Cyperaceae. Freshwater to
brackish conditions suggest the presence of a local source of freshwater during this time and therefore a
climate wetter than present. Continued rise in sea level was associated with an increase in depth and
A salinity. By c. 6350-6250 yr BP, the coring site was an inner lagoon, by c. 6125 yr BP a central lagoon and
by c. 5900 yr BP the site was close to the mouth of the lagoon (lower lagoon). Lower lagoon conditions
HOLOCENE persistel until the top of the record, showing sea-level stabilization; which was followed by the formation
RESEARCH of the dune ridge that presently separates the coring site from the sea.
REPORT
Key words: Sea-level change, diatoms, ostracodes, foraminifera, pollen, Sonora, Mexico, Holocene.

Introduction has been largely overlooked (Nichols, 1965; Curray et al.,

The transition from the last glacial maximum to the Holocene
was associated with a rise in sea level (eustatic sea-level change)
on the order of 120 m (Fleming et al., 1998; Peltier, 2002). This
late Pleistocene and Holocene rise in sea level resulted in the
flooding of shallow coastal areas that resulted in the formation
of many of the modern coastal lagoon systems. The sedimen-
tary record preserved in these lagoons provides an insight into
the history of sea-level fluctuations, as well as local palaeo-
environmental and palaeoclimatic conditions during the last
c. 12000 yr.
The study of coastal lagoon records from northwestern
Mexico (Figure 1) is important, because few complete climate
records exist in this arid area (Sonoran Desert) owing to
both poor fossil preservation and discontinous sequences
(Petit-Maire and Casta, 1977; Van Devender, 1990; Lozano
Garcia et al., 2002; Davis, 2003). The value of these environ-
ments as recorders of late Pleistocene to Holocene sea-level rise
*Author for correspondence: (e-mail: maga(geofisica.unam.mx)
**Present address: Universidad de Sonora, Departamento de
Geologia, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico.
(D) 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd
1969). Both climate and sea-level change are important factors
in the evolution of the coastal landscape of the area, an
environment that played an imporant role in the context of the
human occupation of the Gulf of Califonia (Petit-Maire and
Casta, 1977; Procasi and Fujita, 2000). In this paper, we
present results of a preliminary palaeoenvironmental study of a
former coastal lagoon in the state of Sonora, on the eastern
shores of the Gulf of California (Figure 1), northwest Mexico.
Environmental setting
Bahia Kino (28°51'N, 11 1°58'W) is an open bay protected by
Isla Tibur6n (Figure 1). At its southeastern end lies the 'Estero
Santa Cruz' and at its northwestern end the Sierra Seri, which
rises to about 350 m a.s.l. Our study site is the so-called 'New
Kino saline' (Nichols, 1965), a coastal flood plain between the
towns of Kino Nuevo and Kino Viejo (Figure 1). This flood
area has an irregular elongated shape, 5 km long and 1 km
maximum width. It is nearly 1 m below sea level, separated
from the sea by a sand barrier 10-15 m high. This part of the
Gulf of California has been tectonically stable during the last
10.1 191/0959683605hl896rr
 M. Caballero et al.: Lagoon development in the Gulf of California, Mexico 1237

''.rI
" __T_-'__'_'_'_
""'
125 000 yr, when tectonic uplift in the area lowered to rates of
11 20W 1 08tW less than 30 mm/ka (Ortlieb, 1991).
The climate in the Gulf of California is characterized by
cie-
northwesterly winds during the winter, that generate upwelling
GGuclri
NO S3 N off the continental coasts, and by southeasterly winds during
\'N \ BahIaHermosIH
KI<no
>
the summer, that bring some rainfall to the area. Tropical
storms can reach this far north, also bringing moisture during
, ? TasTio1a the late summer or early autumn. The study region has a dry
Guaymas
(130 mm mean annual precipitation), hot (30°C mean annual
eN > C Q'% |temperature) climate with cool winters (150C mean monthly
winter temperature) (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Geo-
grafia e Informaitica (INEGI), 1993). The main drainage of the
Paciflc \
Oceon
; ^ 1 26e N area is the Bacoachi River, which at present terminates
in the playa lake of San Bartolo, 20 km north of Bahia Kino
(Figure 1); only occasionally the Bacoachi River overflows San
La Paz Bartolo and drains to the Estero de Santa Cruz through the
New Kino saline. At present no major drainage reaches the
study site.
Bahia Kino is part of the Central Gulf Coast subdivision of
the Sonoran Desert (Shreve and Wiggins, 1964), which
1120 00Y corresponds to the sarcocaulescent desert, a region dominated
by Bursera Jaquin and Jatropha Linne. The belt of vegetation
around the New Kino saline is dominated by .Jatropha cinerea
(Ortega) Muiller, .J cuneata Wiggings & Rollins (Euphorbia-
ceae) and Bursera microphylla A. Gray (Burseraceae). The
flora also includes shrub and herb members of the Acantha-
Barto-0
San4 lo ||ceae. Amaranthaceae, Asteraceaer Boraginaceae, CelastraceaeK
other Euphorbiaceae, Krameriaceae, Malvaceae, Nyctagina-
ceae, Resedaceae, Simmondsiaceae, Solanaceae, Tamaricaceae
and Poaceae. Scattered trees include Prosopis glandulosa
Torrey (Mimosaceae), Psorothamnus emoryi (A. Gray)
Rydberg (Fabaceae), and columnar cacti (Cactaceae): Cane-
pringki (S. Watson) Britton & Rose, and Stenocereus thurberi
(Engelmann) Buxbaum.
The New Kino saline is sparsely covered by several species of
Chenopodiaceae (Allenrolfea occidentalis (S. Watson) Kuntze,
A triplex barclayana (Bentham) Dietrich, A triplex canescens
(Pursh) Nuttal, A triplex polycarpa (Torrey) S. Watson, Cheno-
podium murale Linne', and Suaeda Forsk sp., Monanthochloe
Bahta~~~~29 00 littoralis
giaeae Engelmann
gignterla(Enelmerannd Frankenia palmeri
(Poaceae),BrtoM S. Watson
oser, P95.
iachyceres
(Frankeniaceae), and secondarily Cressa truxilknsis Kunth
!~~.O ~~~(Convolvulaceae)
W11:1M] and Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl) J.F. Macbride
NETI ~~~~~~(Resedaceae). Aizoaceae and the non-native Tamarix ramosis-
sima Ledebourgh (Tamaricaceae) grow at its southeastern
Nuevfornia280 50' but along the coast these kind of environments are charac
terized by riparian vegetation, which includes Typha domin-
Bahia ~ ~ ~ ~ gensis
Persoon (Typhaceae) and Cyperus elegans Linn' (Cyper-
aceae) inter alia (Felger and Moser, 1985). Tidal flats
Kino ~~~~~~~~throughout the Gulf of California region support Batis
maritima Linnm (Bataceae), the saltwort; however, this species
is not presently found at the study site.

Methods
Gulf of S u
A 10-m-long core (K1) was collected from the study area
(Figure 1) using an Eijkelkamp soil sampler. The core was
28040' sampled every 5 cm for magnetic susceptibility. A total of 47
1110 50
samples were selected for organic matter determinations. 20 of
these samples were subsampled for pollen, diatom, ostracode
Figure 1 Location of Bahia Kino, Sonora, Mexico. Asterisk and foraminifera analyses. Additional samples were selected
indicates the location of the coring sites Contour intervals for for a higher resolution pollen and diatom analysis between
altitudes below 50 m asl is 10 m and for altitudes above 50 m asl is 6.0 and 3.6 m. Three bulk sediment samples were selected for
50 m 14C determinations (Table 1).
1238 The Holocene 15 (2005)
Table 1 Radiocarbon dates for core KI, Bahia Kino, Sonora, Mexico
Laboratory code Depth (m) Conventional age
(AMS or STD) (14C yr BP)
Beta-179700 (AMS) 1.1 4830+40
NSRL-11657 (AMS) 4.3 6300+45
Beta-9179 (STD) 5.1 6500 +110
a
Stuiver et al. (1998).
Organic matter content (loss-on-ignition, LOI) was deter-
mined by heating samples to 550°C for two hours; results are
presented as percentage of dry weight. The magnetic suscept-
ibility (X), which is a proxy for terrigenous sediment content,
was measured with a Bartington MS2 susceptibility bridge.
Samples for pollen extractions were first soaked in distilled
water and washed through a 250 ,um screen. Lycopodium
tablets were added to determine the pollen concentration
(Stockmarr, 1972). After a hot 10% KOH treatment, sodium
polytungstate was used to separate the inorganic matrix (heavy
liquid flotation, Nakagawa et al., 1998). The residue was
mounted in glycerine. Sample 4.95 m provided only 67 pollen
grains, five samples (4.25, 4.75, 4.85, 5.20 and 5.30 m) provided
counts between 134 and 230 pollen grains, and the remaining
samples more than 300 pollen grains. Palynological analysis in
arid lands has demonstrated the validity of low pollen counts
(Martin, 1963; Horowitz, 1992), so all these samples were
included in our study.
Diatoms were cleaned using HCl and H202 and permanently
mounted with Naphrax. When possible, 400 valves were
counted, but diatom abundance was generally low and in
several samples only 100 valves were counted. Species relative
abundance is expressed as percentage of the total count. Total
diatom abundance was estimated from the average diatom
count along diametral transects and is expressed as valves per
gram of dry sediment (v/gds). Diatom taxonomy follows
Kramer and Lange Bertalot (1986, 1988, 1991a, 1991b).
Ostracodes and foraminifera were cleaned by washing the
sediment through a 63 ptm screen. The residue was dried at
50°C, and ostracodes and foraminifera were hand-picked using
a fine brush and organized on micropalaeontological slides.
Abundance was generally low, and minimum counts of only 90
specimens were possible for ostracodes and for most of the
foraminifera samples.
Results and discussion
Stratigraphy, LOI, 14C dating and magnetic susceptibility (X) of
core KI are presented in Figure 2. The lower part of the core
(10.0-9.3 m) contains sandy gravel, the coarsest sediment in
the sequence. Medium and fine reddish sand with occasional
foraminifera and broken ostracode valves is present between
9.3 and 6.8 m. Finer sediment, including layers of peat, silt or
sandy silt, is present between 6.8 and 3.6 m. The section
between 5.4 and 3.6 m contains the finest sediments and the
highest levels of organic matter. Pollen and diatoms are present
through most of this interval (Figures 2 and 3). Coarse and
medium sand with foraminifera is dominant in the upper 3.6 m.
One layer of more organic, sandy silt is present between 1.5 and
1.1 m. Ostracodes are present in the upper part of the core, but
abundance is very low and valves are broken; ostracode counts
were only possible in two intervals, between 4.0 and 3.3 m and
between 1.5 and 0.5 m (Figures 2 and 3). Detailed pollen
6'3C (°O PDB) Calibrated agea Calibrated age
2cr age range (yr BP) (BC/AD)
max. (intercept) min.
- 17.9 5740 (5660) 5600 3790-3650 BC
-24.6 7266 (7248) 7163 5364-5083 BC
-25.0 7580 (7430) 7240 5640-5290 BC
stratigraphy is presented in Figure 2; detailed diatom, ostra-
code and foraminifera abundances are presented in Figure 3.
Magnetic susceptibility varies inversely with the LOI, with
its highest values in the sand and gravel horizons, while organic
content is higher in the finest-grained sediment. Radiocarbon
dates were obtained from three samples (Table 1). Sedimenta-
tion rates calculated from these dates are 3.5 mm/yr for the
peat layer (5.1-4.4 m) and 2.2 mm/yr for the predominantly
sandy upper part of the core (4.4-1.2 m). According to this last
sedimentation rate, the probable age for the base of the
sequence could be arround 8700 yr BP and about 4300 yr BP
for the top, although more dates are needed to confirm this.
The lower part of the record (10-6.8 m), dominated by sandy
gravel and medium reddish sand, has no fossil preservation and
therefore environmental interpretation is limited. The coarse
sediment and the presence of reddish sands can be taken as
indicative of subaereal conditions. The finer sediment present
between 6.8 and 3.6 m shows a transition to a lower energy
environment, which probably dates to c. 7000 yr BP. Pollen and
diatoms are present in part of these finer-grained sediments,
pollen between 5.3 and 4.2 m (c. 6600-6350 yr BP) and diatoms
between 5.1 and 4.0 m (c. 6500-6150 yr BP) (Figures 2 and 3).
Pollen preservation was poor, with low abundance and low
diversity (Figure 2). Total number of taxa was highest at 4.85 m
(17 taxa) and lowest at 5.15 m (8 taxa). For arid regions, diversity
of less than 20 taxa has been reported in previous studies
(Martin, 1963). Pollen concentration values vary between 6000
and 70000 pollen grains per gram of sediment. Most pollen
grains correspond to freshwater marsh taxa (Figure 2). Owing to
the generally low pollen counts, they were not excluded from the
pollen sum. The main features of the pollen diagram reflect the
succession of three local vegetation periods. Between 5.3 and 5.1
m (c. 6600-6500 yr BP), which corresponds to organic-rich silt,
Typha domingensis Persoon is dominant (48-90% of the total
pollen sum), along with some Cyperaceae, Poaceae and few
Chenopodiaceae. Long-distance transport of Pinus Linne pollen
was the highest in the sequence (up to 3%), possibly because pine
populations from the Sierra Madre Occidental were at lower
elevation than today (Ortega Rosas, 2003), so closer to the site.
However, highest pine pollen frequencies occur at lowest pollen
concentration levels and might be simply a result of the lack of
local pollen resulting in a relatively higher representation of
long-distance transported pollen. Desert trees and shrubs were
represented by the isolated presence of Prosopis Linne, Sim-
mondsia Nuttal and Cactaceae, with less than 1% of the total
pollen sum each, but suggesting that the site was surrounded by
desert vegetation. According to Van Devender et al., (1994) and
Anderson and Van Devender (1995), desert vegetation was
present throughout the Holocene on the Sierra Bacha, at 200 m
elevation near the coast, 100 km to the northwest of Bahia Kino.
Sediment and pollen assemblages give evidence that between
about 6600 and 6500 yr BP, the coring site was a low-energy,
freshwater to slightly brackish supratidal marsh covered with
Typha domingensis. Freshwater to brackish conditions suggest
the influence of a freshwater source.
 M. Caballero et a!.: Lagoon development in the Gulf of California, Mexico 1239

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1240 The Holocene 15 (2005)

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a~m 1 Peat Medium reddish sand Coarse reddish sand [X Sandy gravel

Figure 3 Stratigraphy, 14C dates and detailed diatom, ostracode and foraminifera stratigraphy of core KI, Bahia Kino, Sonora, Mexico

Between 5.1 and 4.5 m (6500-6350 yr BP), which is the peat in the modem littoral or lagoon environments in the area
layer, the pollen diagram is characterized by the dominance (Round, 1967; Licea-Duran, 1974; Gilmartin and Revelante,
of Cyperaceae (53-90%), fewer Typha domingensis (8-15%) 1978; Hernandez-Becerril and Alvarez-Borrego, 1984; Hemrnn-
and Poaceae (2-3%), and higher frequencies of Chenopodia- dez-Becerril, 1985, 1987; Bustillos-Guzmain, 1986; Moreno
ceae (up to 15%). This suggests that between around 6500 et al., 1996). Together the sediment, pollen and diatoms
and 6350 yr BP the coring area continued to be a marsh, but indicate that between c. 6500 and c. 6350 yr BP the site
it was more saline (brackish marsh). Diatoms are also present continued to be covered by a shallow marsh but of higher
in this interval. The assemblage is characterized by Rhopalodia salinity than at approximately 6600 yr BP. We infer
gibberula (Ehrenberg) 0. Miller (around 15-20% of counts) that between about 6500 and 6350 yr BP, the site represented
in association with approximately ten other diatom species a brackish marsh dominated by Cyperaceae and Typha
with abundances around or under 10% (Figure 3). The diatoms domingensis, on the tidal flat at the shores of a lagoon,
present in this assemblage range mostly from oligohalobous but close to a freshwater input. The influence of freshwater
to mesohalobous and are mostly benthic or epiphytic in habitat is necessary to preserve the relatively low salinity. The
(Figure 3). Most of them are species common in alkaline trend towards higher salinity is attributed to an increa-
lakes in Mexico (Davies et al., 2002), only Amphora coffeae- sing influence of the sea in the area resulting from a rising
formis (Agardh) Kutzing and R. gibberula are also reported sea level.
 M. Caballero et al.: Lagoon development in the Gulf of Califomia, Mexico 1241
In the 5.1-4.5 m interval (c. 6500-6350 yr BP), desert trees
and shrubs are more diverse, with Fouquieria splendens
Engelmann, Cactaceae, Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K.
Schneider, Celtis Linne, Olneya tesota A. Gray and Prosopis
Linne. Most of these have pollen frequencies under 1%, but
this is representative, as desert trees and shrubs are under-
represented pollen taxa that are absent from modern pollen
spectra (Orvis, 1998). We conclude that the study area
remained surrounded by desert vegetation. The pollen grains
of Fouquieria splendens in the KI sequence predate the 5340 yr
BP macrofossil record of this species in the Sierra Bacha
(Anderson and Van Devender, 1995) and confirm that the
species grew on the Sonoran coasts of the Gulf of Califonia
during the middle Holocene. The presence of desert tree and
tall shrub taxa in the fossil samples may be due to higher
moisture levels than today, generating higher pollen produc-
tion and release by plants, and/or higher sediment moisture
providing better pollen preservation. But the low percentages
of desert taxa preclude further interpretation on detailed
changes in the landscape. Otherwise, the presence of two
pollen grains of Juglans Linne at 4.95 m, the poorest level with
fewer than 100 pollen grains, is difficult to explain unless it
corresponded with human transport. Humans occupied the
region by this time (Petit-Maire and Casta, 1977). The
possibility of contamination is excluded, both at the coring
site and at the laboratory, because the closest walnuts are
some cultivated individuals about 50 km to the east, and
isolated natural populations are nearly 200 km to the northeast
(A.L. Reina and T.R. Van Devender, personal communi-
cation, 2003).
Between 4.5 and 4.2 m (6350-6250 yr BP), the pollen record
is characterized by the halophyte shrubs and herbs of the
Chenopodiaceae (probably including Allenrolfea occidentalis
(S. Watson) Kuntze, Atriplex sp., Chenopodium murale Linne,
and Suaeda Forsk sp.) and Batis maritima Linne (up to 65%
and 35%). The presence of Cyperaceae sharply decreased, and
Typha domingensis almost disappeared from the record.
Prosopis Linne, Parkinsonia Linne, and Celtis Linne reflect
the desert vegetation still surrounding the site. Transported
Pinus Linne pollen is rare; the tendency to decreasing pine
percentages along the pollen record indicate that this is due to
the retreat of the pine forest to more distant, higher elevations
in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Diatoms are also present in
this interval, between 4.5 and 4.0 m (c. 6350-6150 yr BP). The
diatom assemblage is dominated by the benthic-epiphytic
Nitzschia granulata Grunow (45-80%). Tychoplanktonic
Paralia sulcata (Ehrenberg) Cleve (syn. Melosira sulcata)
becomes important only in the upper two samples (4.3 and
4.0 m, Figure 3). Nitzschia granulata and Paralia sulcata are
marine species (euhalobous) reported in the study area
(Round, 1967; Licea-Duran, 1974; Gilmartin and Revelante,
1978; Hernandez-Becerril, 1987; Moreno et al., 1996). Pollen
and diatom assemblages indicate that a salinity similar to the
sea was reached after about 6350 yr BP. Diatoms and the
change in the sediments from peat to sandy silt at 4.3 m also
suggest that this transition was associated with a change from a
lower to a higher energy environment. All the evidence suggests
that between about 6350 and 6250 yr BP, there was a transition
from a brackish marsh on the tidal flat around a lagoon to a
more open, deeper site in the inner area of the lagoon (inner
estero of Nichols, 1965), where marine influence was greater.
This transition is attributed to a continued rise in sea level
during this time. These conditions lasted at least until about
6150 yr BP.
Ostracodes, present in samples 4.0 and 3.5 m (6150-5900 yr
BP), appear as pollen and diatoms are lost from the record.
The 4.0 m sample, where diatoms are also present, is sandy silt
and the ostracode assemblage is dominated by Perissocyther-
idea meyerabichi Hartmann. The 3.5 m sample is sand, and the
assemblage is dominated by Puriana pacif7ca Benson. Both
ostracode species are considered characteristic of salt-water
lagoon conditions in the Gulf of California (inner or upper
lagoon, Benson, 1961; Benson and Kaesler, 1963), with
Puriana pacifica also common in open coast environments
(Benson and Kaesler, 1963). Foraminifera are also present in
these two samples, both assemblages dominated by Ammonia
beccarii Linne and Elphidium transluscens Natland, species
typical of coastal lagoons in the Gulf of California (Phleger
and Ewing, 1962; Phleger and Ayala-Castaniares, 1972;
Murray, 1999). The coarser sediment and the presence of
ostracodes and foraminifera are consistent with the diatom
interpretation of a transition towards deeper, higher energy
environments. This transition continued between about 6125
and 5900 yr BP, suggesting that during this interval the site
represented a central area in a lagoon (central estero of
Nichols, 1965).
The rest of the core (3.5-0 m, c. 5900-4300 yr BP) provides
well-preserved foraminifera. The assemblages are more diverse,
dominated by Elphidium transluscens in association with five
other species with abundances between about 10 and 20%
(Figure 3). All are common in lagoon environments; the higher
diversity of the assemblage and the coarser sediment in this
section suggest that the coring site was closer to the mouth of
the lagoon (Ayala Castaiiares, 1963; Debenay et al., 2000),
representing a lower lagoon environment (lower estero of
Nichols, 1965). Foraminifera indicate that the coring site
continued to be a lower lagoon until the top of the sequence,
probably dating to around 4300 yr BP. Ostracodes are absent
from 3.3 to 1.5 m, but they reappear between 1.5 and 0.5 m, an
interval where organic sandy silt is present. The most
important ostracode species in this interval are Perissocyther-
idea meyerabichi, Pumilocytheridea sp. and Puriana pacifica
(Figure 3). Perissocytheridea meyerabichi and Pumilocytheridea
sp. are most abundant in the sandy silt sediment and suggest
shallower environments, while Puriana pacifica becomes more
abundant in the sand sediment (0.5 m), indicating a return to
deeper conditions. The ostracodes suggest that around 4830 yr
BP the coring site was in a shallower area of the lagoon.
Conclusions
The data from the KI core clearly show the influence of
Holocene rise in sea level in this area. The sequence records
a transition from subaereal environments prior to c. 7000 yr
BP, to a freshwater to slightly brackish supratidal marsh by
c. 6600 yr BP. This marsh slowly increased its salinity, changing
to a brackish marsh at the edge of a lagoon between about
6500 and 6350 yr BP. The data indicate that by around 6350 yr
BP the site became deeper, in a distal or inner location in the
lagoon. A continued rise in sea level caused a change to a more
centric location in the lagoon by about 6150 and after around
5900 yr BP to a location closer to the mouth of the lagoon
(lower lagoon). A brief period of slightly shallower conditions
is centred at about 4830 yr BP.
According to this sequence of evolution, the Holocene
transgression originated the flooding of the New Kino saline
by arround 6500-6350 yr BP (c. 7400-7300 BP calibrated
age). These dates are in agreement with previous work by
Nichols (1965) in Estero Tastiota, some 60 km to the south,
where, based on one 14C date, he concluded that flooding
occurred prior to 5120 yr BP. Our data also suggest that a more
1242 The Holocene 15 (2005)
or less stable sea level was reached around 5900 yr BP (c. 6700
yr BP calibrated age). Curray et al., (1969) report shoreline
stabilisation on the coasts of Nayarit, about 900 km south of
our study site, by around 4750 yr BP, and Ortlieb (1986)
suggested a slowing in the Holocene transgression at the
Sonoran coasts by around 5000 yr BP. In Nayarit shoreline
stabilization was followed by progradation. In New Kino,
shoreline stabilization was followed by the formation of the
dune ridge that separates the study site from the seashore. A
probable date of this event could be around 4300 yr BP (c. 4900
yr BP calibrated age), the extrapolated age for the top of the
Ki core, although more dates are needed to confirm this.
In palaeoclimatic terms our record is relatively poor, as it is
dominated by sea-level rise. Nevertheless, the presence of a
freshwater to brackish marsh dominated by Typha domingensis
and Cyperaceae between about 6600 and 6350 yr BP (c. 7500-
7300 yr BP calibrated age) is indicative of wetter than present
conditions. Pollen data show, however, that desert vegetation
surrounded the site, giving a picture of an arid environment but
with higher than present effective moisture. It is not possible to
give a date when these wetter than present conditions ceased,
as the transition to deeper and higher salinity environments is
related to sea-level rise rather than climate, and desert tree and
shrub pollen is too scarce to be further interpreted. The KI
record shows, nevertheless, that coastal lagoons are potentially
good sites for palaeoenvironmental research in this area.
Palaeoclimatic data for the Sonoran Desert are consistent,
indicating that the late Pleistocene climate was wetter than
during the Holocene (Van Devender et al., 1987; McAuliffe
and Van Devender, 1998; Lozano-Garcia et al., 2002; Davis,
2003). The available data indicate that climates in Sonora
became generally dryer by about 8000-7000 yr BP, but that the
middle Holocene was still generally moister than present
(Martin, 1963; Van Devender et al., 1987, 1994; McAuliffe
and Van Devender, 1998; Ortega Guerrero et al., 1999;
Metcalfe et al., 2000). Some authors, however, have reported
mid-Holocene drier than present conditions (Spaulding, 1991).
Our data are in agreement with the interperation of a moister
than present middle Holocene in Sonora. A similar pattern of a
relatively moist late Pleistocene and a drier, but wetter than
present early and middle Holocene is inferred for the adjacent
Chihuahuan Desert (Ortega-Ramirez et al., 1998; Metcalfe
et al., 1997, 2002; Palacios-Fest et al., 2002) and Sierra Madre
Occidental (L6pez Higuera, 2003; Ortega Rosas, 2003). In both
Sonora and Chihuahua deserts, modern arid conditions
represent the driest interval in the Holocene and were
established within the last 5000-4000 yr BP.
The source of the increased moisture in this area during the
late Pleistocene and the early and middle Holocene is debated
(Thompson et al., 1993). Atmospheric circulation models
explain the late Pleistocene moisture in northwestern Mexico
by the influence of the southern branch of the jet stream, split
in two by the presence of the Laurentian Ice Sheet during the
last glacial maximum (c. 18 000 yr BP). This increased westerly
flow brought higher winter moisture to this area (COHMAP
members, 1988; Thompson et al., 1993; Fritz et al., 2001;
Metcalfe et al., 2002). However, even though this model is
generally accepted, weak winter northwesterly winds prior to
12000 yr BP are inferred based on the finely laminated
sediments of the Gulf of California (Sancetta, 1995; Barron
et al., 2004). According to atmospheric circulation models,
during the early Holocene, as the ice sheet retreated, the jet was
displaced to a more northerly position and therefore winter
moisture was reduced in the area. Summer rainfall in this area,
on the other hand, is interpreted to have been higher than
present during the early and middle Holocene, as enhanced
summer insolation over the continent generated a maximum in
monsoon circulation (southerly winds) (Thompson et al., 1993,
Fritz et al., 2001; Metcalfe et al., 2002). However, a maximum
in the winter northwesterly winds associated with winter
rainfall during the early and middle Holocene is inferred
from the finely laminated sediments of the Gulf of California
(Sancetta, 1995; Barron et al., 2004). Dune fields in southern
Baja California also suggest high northwesterly winds during
the early and middle Holocene (Murillo de Nava et al., 1999).
Packrat midden macrofossils in the area have been interpreted
as reflecting progressively lower winter precipitation from the
westerlies and increasingly higher summer precipitation, which
reached a maximum in the middle Holocene (Van Devender,
1990; Van Devender et al., 1994). Wetter than present early
Holocene (c. 10 000-7000 yr BP) conditions in Sonora seem to
be associated with higher than present winter precipitation.
Generally drier but still wetter than present middle Holocene
(c. 7000-4000 yr BP) conditions, supported by our data, might
have had the influence of still higher than present winter
rainfall, as well as higher summer rainfall associated with an
increased monsoon flow. However, at present, rainfall during
late summer and early autumn associated with tropical storms
originating in the Pacific is an important source of moisture in
Bahia Kino. An increased frequency of Pacific hurricanes
reaching this far north during the middle Holocene would be
consistent with a higher late-summer pecipitation in this area
during the middle Holocene. In summary in palaeoclimatic
terms, the KI sequence agrees with the presence of arid
conditons with well-established desert vegetation in the coast
of Sonora during the middle Holocene, but with higher than
present effective moisture. The source of this increased
moisture is debated, but it is likely that winter rainfall,
associated with more intense winter westerly winds, was still
higher than at present, as suggested by the laminated sediments
from the Gulf of California. Higher summer rainfall during
this time is suggested by the packrat midden data, probably
related to an enhanced monsoon circulation. We propose that,
for this area, one source of late summer moisture that should
be evaluated is a higher frequency of Pacific hurricanes
reaching this far north.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the National University of
Mexico (grant DGAPA - IN1012595). We thank M.A.
Quintana who provided the description of the present vegeta-
tion at the site, L. Larios for laboratory assistance, M. Ortiz for
help in drafting the pollen diagram and M.A. Duarte for
coring assistance. T.R. Van Devender kindly provided flowers
from Batis maritima for pollen reference. Pollen extraction was
completed at the chemistry laboratory of the Instituto de
Geologia-UNAM, ERNO, Hermosillo. One radiocarbon date
(NSRL) was funded by the National Science Foundation
(NSF) Grant AMT-9809285 to the University of Colorado
INSTAAR - Laboratory for AMS Radiocarbon Preparation
and Research. We also thank Dr Sarah Metcalfe and an
anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments.
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