Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Waste Management 28 (2008) 993–999

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Durability of recycled aggregate concrete using pozzolanic materials

a,*
K.Y. Ann , H.Y. Moon b, Y.B. Kim b, J. Ryou b

a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Accepted 12 March 2007

Available online 1 May 2007

Abstract

In this study, pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) were used to compensate for the loss of
strength and durability of concrete containing recycled aggregate. As a result, 30% PFA and 65% GGBS concretes increased the com-
pressive strength to the level of control specimens cast with natural granite gravel, but the tensile strength was still lowered at 28 days.
Replacement with PFA and GGBS was effective in raising the resistance to chloride ion penetrability into the concrete body, measured
by a rapid chloride ion penetration test based on ASTM C 1202-91. It was found that the corrosion rate of 30% PFA and 65% GGBS
concretes was kept at a lower level after corrosion initiation, compared to the control specimens, presumably due to the restriction of
oxygen and water access. However, it was less effective in increasing the chloride threshold level for steel corrosion. Hence, it is expected
that the corrosion time for 30% PFA and 65% GGBS concrete containing recycled aggregate mostly equates to the corrosion-free life of
control specimens.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction strong bond between cement past and aggregate (Poon

Recycled aggregate from a deteriorated concrete struc-
ture has currently received increasing attention, due to its
potential to be used in environmentally friendly concrete
structures. Moreover, the deficiency of natural aggregates
leads to develop recycled aggregate as alternative fillers in
many countries. For example, in Korea, it is advised to
use/apply recycled aggregates in concrete structures, since
a huge amount of construction wastes were generated,
accounting for 2,000,000 tons yearly, including mainly the
concrete fragments from the demolition of dilapidated
housing (KICT, 2006). Hence, a number of studies have
been performed by using recycled aggregate in concrete,
but they always resulted in a lower level of concrete
strengths. This was due to the residual impurities on the
surface of the recycled aggregates, which blocked the
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 02 2123 2806; fax: +82 02 364 5300.
E-mail address: k.ann@cmme.yonsei.ac.kr (K.Y. Ann).
et al., 2004; Sani et al., 2005; de Oliveira and Vazquez,
1996; Tu et al., 2006). Moreover, recycled aggregate in con-
crete could have induced the plastic shrinkage of concrete
due to higher water absorption (Levy and Helene, 2004;
Olorunsogo and Padayachee, 2002), which has been par-
tially sorted out by using polypropylene and metallic fibres
(Mesbah and Buyle-Bodin, 1999). Water absorption still
imposes a risk of freeze–thaw resistance of concrete (Topçu
and Sengel, 2004).
Compared to the wide use of pulverized fuel ash (PFA)
and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) in con-
crete structures, their use in concrete containing recycled
aggregate has been rarely investigated in terms of durabil-
ity of concrete structures, although PFA and GGBS
enhance the resistance to chloride or/and carbonation-
induced corrosion of steel in concrete. It was previously
reported that PFA was not effective in enhancing the com-
pressive strength, and moreover, abrasion and drying
shrinkage of concrete became more severe (Sagoe-Crentsil
et al., 2001). However, PFA in recycled aggregate concrete

0956-053X/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2007.03.003
994 K.Y. Ann et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 993–999

increases the resistance to skid marks, when used in pave- Table 2

ment. GGBS aids in raising the compressive strength, but Physical properties of granite and recycled aggregate
lowers the resistance to the carbonation of concrete (Poon Type Density Absorption (%) F.M. (%) Gmax (mm)
and Chan, 2006). Granite 2.63 0.73 6.95 25
The present study used PFA and GGBS in binder to Recycled 2.48 4.25 6.65 25
enhance the durability of concrete in terms of the resistance
to chloride-induced corrosion. The influence of the pozzo-
lanic materials on the concrete strength was assessed by chamber with 95% humidity at 20 ± 2 C. The compressive
measuring the compressive strength at 7, 28, 90 and strength was measured at 7, 28, 91 and 180 days and the
180 days, as well as measuring the ion penetrability at tensile strength at 28 days.
180 days by using the rapid chloride ion penetration test.
The corrosion rate was measured at 28 days by the polar- 2.2. Testing for ion permeability
ization method and the obtained data on the corrosion rate
was used to calculate the chloride threshold. Rapid chloride ion permeability tests were used to eval-
uate the permeability of concrete containing recycled
2. Experimental work aggregate. This test was based on the standard test method
of ASTM C 1202-91 (1991). After having been cured for
Concrete specimens were manufactured using ordinary 180 days, a concrete disc, 50 mm in thickness and
Portland cement (OPC), as well as mixtures of OPC with 100 mm in diameter, was connected to two chambers:
pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and ground granulated blast fur- one was filled with 3% sodium chloride and the other with
nace slag (GGBS). The oxide composition is given in Table 0.3 M sodium hydroxide to form electrodes, as shown in
1. Recycled aggregates derived from a crushed concrete Fig. 1. An electric charge of 60 V was applied to the elec-
building, built in Seoul in 1963, were used for all mixes, trodes for 6 h. The current flowing through the concrete
except for the ‘Control’ specimens cast with natural granite specimen and the temperature of the solution in the cham-
gravel. Very little of the debris on the aggregate (i.e., bers were monitored every 30 min. Then, the total charge
cement paste contaminants on the natural aggregate) indi- passed through the cell in 6 h was calculated to determine
cated carbonation, when exposed to the phenolphthalein the penetrability. The higher level of charge passed repre-
indicator. Physical properties for both aggregates are given
in Table 2, including water absorption, density and fineness
– +
modulus.

2.1. Testing for strength

The compressive strength of concretes was tested on

cylindrical concrete specimens (200 mm in length and
100 mm in diameter). The mix proportion for manufactur-
ing concrete specimens was 350 kg/m3 binder, 787 kg/m3
fine aggregate (density: 2.61), and 1055 kg/m3 25 mm
coarse aggregate. The free water/binder ratio was 0.45,
and PFA and GGBS were admixed in concrete in the ratio
of 30% and 65% by weight of binder, respectively. This
concrete mix was used for testing strength, ion permeability
and corrosion behaviour. In the testing of fresh concrete,
the slump of control (i.e., OPC with natural aggregates),
OPC, 30% PFA and 65% GGBS concretes containing recy-
cled aggregates were 11.4, 10.6, 7.1 and 6.4 cm, respec-
tively. After demoulding, the specimens were cured in a Fig. 1. Set-up for rapid chloride ion penetration test (ASTM C 1202-91).

Table 1
Oxide composition of binders (% w/w)
Binder Oxides Ignitiona
CaO SiO2 Al2O3 MgO Fe2O3 SO3 Na2O
OPC 61.4 20.5 6.4 3.0 2.9 2.1 1.2 0.8
PFA 4.22 55.0 21.1 1.2 10.9 0.06 1.0 5.0
GGBS 33.5 44.2 14.0 4.9 0.8 1.4 0.9 0.1
a
Loss on ignition.
 K.Y. Ann et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 993–999
Table 3
Chloride ion penetrability based on charge passed
Charge passed (Coulombs) Chloride ion penetrability
>4000 High
2000–4000 Moderate
1000–2000 Low
100–1000 Very low
<100 Negligible
sents the higher permeability of concrete, which is
addressed in more detail in ASTM C 1202-91, as given in
Table 3.
2.3. Testing for corrosion
The present study used a polarization method to identify
the corrosion behaviour of steel embedded in concrete con-
taining recycled aggregate. Concrete specimens with a cen-
trally located 20 mm diameter mild steel bar were cast in a
cube mould (150 · 150 · 150 mm) to create a 65 mm cover
depth. Eight levels of chlorides were added to the mixing
water, ranging from 0.1% to 2.0% of binder weight. Prior
to casting concrete, the ends of steel re-bars were masked
with cementitious materials and then covered with heat
shrink insulation to avoid corrosion under the masking.
After demoulding, the specimens were cured at 20 ± 2 C
for 4 weeks. Before measuring the corrosion rate, the con-
crete specimens and probes were immersed in 0.5 M
sodium chloride solution for 24 h to ensure chemical stabil-
ity, but the top of the specimen was kept aerated for the
supply of oxygen. The potential was initially set 25 mV
below the corrosion potential and then swept at a low scan
rate of about 0.1 mV/s to a potential of 25 mV above the
corrosion potential. Then, the corrosion rate was calcu-
lated by extrapolating Tafel’s curves that determine the
cathodic and anodic slopes as given in Eq. (1). The electri-
cal resistance of concrete (i.e., IR drop) was automatically
Concrete specimen
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up for testing the corrosion rate of steel in
concrete containing recycled aggregate.
995
calibrated by using a current interruption technique. An
experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 2.
ba bc
I CORR ¼ ð1Þ
2:3RP ðba þ bc Þ
where, ICORR is the corrosion rate, ba is the anodic Tafel’s
slope, bc is the cathodic Tafel’s slope, and RP is the polar-
ization resistance.
In this study, Tafel’s extrapolation method was used in
determining the corrosion rate of steel in concrete, rather
than the anodic polarization technique, to consider the var-
iation in the corrosion potential with the state of steel.
More details of measuring the corrosion rate of steel in
concrete is addressed elsewhere (Broomfield, 1997).
3. Results
3.1. Concrete strengths
The development of compressive strength of concrete
containing recycled aggregate is given in Fig. 3, showing
the strengths at 7, 28, 90 and 180 days. The compressive
strength for all specimens increased with time regardless
of aggregate type and binders. The range of strength varied
from 14.4 to 17.3 MPa at 7 days, from 19.5 to 24.0 at 28
days, from 25.1 to 27.6 at 90 days and from 26.5 to 32.4
at 180 days, depending on aggregate type and binders. It
was seen that the compressive strength of OPC concrete
specimen with recycled aggregate only was the lowest in
the long-term, whereas replacement with 30% PFA and
65% GGBS increased the compressive strength the most.
However, at an early stage, the compressive strength for
30% PFA and 65% GGBS concrete containing recycled
aggregate was lower than that of the control specimens,
presumably due to the lower hydration rate of 30% PFA
and 65% GGBS concrete. However, statistical tests (t-test)
showed that the compressive strength did not depend on
the aggregate or binders at 7, 28 and 90 days, but was
dependent on the binders at 180 day. This suggests that
30% PFA and 65% GGBS concretes are effective in enhanc-
ing the compressive strength of concrete at a lower rate, but
are subsequently prominent for increasing the compressive
strength in the long term.
Fig. 4 gives the tensile strength of concretes and the ratio
of tensile to compressive strengths, measured at 28 days. It
was seen that replacement with 30% PFA and 65% GGBS
lowered the tensile strength of concrete containing recycled
aggregate, as compared to the strength of control speci-
mens and even of OPC specimens with recycled aggregate
only. However, the ratio of tensile to compressive strengths
of 30% PFA and 65% GGBS concretes was kept at a sim-
ilar level for the control specimens.
3.2. Permeability
Results of the rapid chloride ion penetration test are
given in Fig. 5, showing the total charge that passed
996 K.Y. Ann et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 993–999

40

30
Compressive strength (MPa) 1

20

Control
10 Recycled-OPC
Recycled-30% PFA
Recycled-65% GGBS

0
7 28 90 180

Time (days)
Fig. 3. Development of compressive strength of concrete containing granite (control) or recycled aggregate with PFA and GGBS.

2.00 0.20

Ratio of tensile to compressive strengths

1.75 0.15
Tensile strength (MPa) 1

1.50 0.10

1.25 0.05
Tensile strength
Ratio of tensile to compressive

1.00 0.00
Control Recycled-OPC Recycled-30% PFA Recycled-65% GGBS
Type of binder
Fig. 4. Tensile strengths and the ratio of tensile to compressive strengths of concrete containing granite (control) or recycled aggregate with PFA and
GGBS.

through the concrete specimens in 6 h. It was seen that 6587, 3521 and 3305 Coulombs for the control, OPC with
recycled aggregate in OPC concrete increased the total recycled aggregate only, 30% PFA and 65% GGBS con-
charge, as compared to the control specimen, but the cretes, respectively. It is evident that PFA and GGBS
charge that passed through 30% PFA and 65% GGBS con- enhanced the resistance to the chloride ion penetrability
cretes was slightly lower than that for control specimens. into the concrete containing recycled aggregate. According
The charge passed for all concrete specimens were 3875, to the standard (i.e., ASTM C 1202-91), the charge passed
 K.Y. Ann et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 993–999
8000
6000
Total charge passed (Coulombs) 1
4000
2000
0
Co ntrol
Fig. 5. Total charge passed through concrete specimens containing granite (control) or recycled aggregate with PFA and GGBS in rapid chloride ion
penetration test (ASTM C 1202-91).
for the control, as well as the 30% PFA and 65% GGBS
concretes, equated to the level of ‘Moderate’’ and ‘High’
for OPC with recycled aggregate (see Table 3). The temper-
ature in the chambers of each cell was well sustained, rang-
ing from 40 to 43 C for 6 h, which implies that it is not
likely to have affected the mobility of chloride ions (i.e.,
Joule’s effect).
3.3. Corrosion resistance
The results for corrosion test of concrete containing
recycled aggregate are given in Fig. 6, which shows the cor-
rosion rate for various levels of chlorides. It was seen that
an increase in the chloride content resulted in an increase in
the corrosion rate, irrespective of binders and aggregate
type. The corrosion rate does not seem to depend on the
binder and aggregate for a lower level of chlorides, ranging
between less than 0.2% and 0.3% by weight of cement, but
with a ratio of more than 0.5% of chlorides, the binders
and the aggregate significantly changed the corrosion rate.
It is evident that 30% PFA and 65% GGBS concretes were
more effective in mitigating corrosion reaction at a higher
level of chlorides, as compared to the control specimens.
For example, the corrosion rate at the chloride content of
2% was 18.63, 33.14, 12.34 and 6.32 mA/m2 for the control
specimen, OPC with recycled aggregate, 30% PFA and 65%
GGBS concretes, respectively.
Table 4 gives the chloride threshold level for corrosion,
calculated by fitting the relationship in the quadratic equa-
tion between the corrosion rate and chloride contents for
each mix, assuming that the corrosion exceeds 1–2 mA/
997
Recycled-OPC Recycled-30% PFA Recycled-65% GGBS
Type of binders
m2 at corrosion initiation (Gonzalez and Andrade, 1982).
The order of chloride threshold level is 30% PFA > con-
trol = 65% GGBS > OPC with recycled aggregate only,
ranging from 0.20% to 0.73% by weight of cement, depend-
ing on binders and aggregate.
4. Discussion
4.1. Effect of recycled aggregate
Recycled aggregates are by-products of crushed con-
crete, usually deteriorated by a chemical or/and physical
attack, such as carbonation, sulphate attack, chloride-
induced corrosion or a loss of strength. Hence, the benefits
from cement paste in recycled aggregate, such as chloride
binding, an inhibitive nature to steel corrosion and a resis-
tance to aggressive ions, are less likely to be expected.
Moreover, recycled aggregate is more porous, compared
to natural aggregate, which is considered as being impervi-
ous inert filler. Increased porosity of recycled aggregate
may lower the bond strength between the cement paste
and the aggregate (i.e., interfacial transition zone), thereby
leading to a loss of concrete strengths (Figs. 3 and 4), an
increase in ion penetrability (Fig. 5) and presumably a
reduction of the corrosion resistance.
Apart from the capillary pores in cement matrix, the
continuous porosity at the interfacial transition zone
between cement paste and recycled aggregate provides a
well-networked path for ions (Oh et al., 2002), which
may be held responsible for increased accessibility of
aggressive ions into the concrete body. Moreover, the high
998 K.Y. Ann et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 993–999

100
Control
Recycled-OPC
Recycled-30% PFA
Recycled-65% GGBS
Corrosion rate (mA/m2)1
10

Corrosion initiation zone

1

0.1
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Chloride content (%, cement)

Fig. 6. Corrosion rate of steel in concrete specimens containing granite (control) or recycled aggregate with PFA and GGBS.

Table 4 4.2. Role of pozzolanic materials

Measurements of the corrosion rate and chloride threshold level of
concrete containing recycled aggregate Pozzolanic materials, such as PFA and GGBS in this
Chloride (%, cem.) Corrosion rate (mA/m ) 2 study, have been preferred to enhance the concrete proper-
Control RA-None RA 30% RA 65% ties: the long-term strength development, the resistance to
PFA GGBS chloride permeability and thus to chloride-induced corro-
0 0.22 0.15 0.13 0.21 sion. Highly grained PFA and GGBS would fill up the
0.1 0.61 0.89 0.55 0.71 pores in cement matrix to block the path for external ions
0.2 0.87 1.56 0.77 0.89 to reach the embedded steel in the concrete. Moreover, a
0.3 1.32 2.65 1.00 1.22 latent hydration characteristic of pozzolanic materials pro-
0.5 2.56 4.36 1.78 2.27
duces a dense, insoluble calcium silicate hydrate gel in the
1.0 6.58 12.34 3.27 4.21
1.5 11.02 21.37 6.22 5.35 cement matrix, resulting from the reaction of silicious oxide
2.0 18.63 33.14 12.34 6.32 in PFA or GGBS with calcium hydroxide or/and the free
CaO in the concrete pore water (i.e., pozzolanic reaction).
Chloride threshold 0.21–0.42 0.12–0.24 0.41–0.73 0.20–0.43 The pozzolanic reaction proceeds at the lower rate than
(%, cem.)
that of cement hydration, and thus the development of
strength of concrete may be delayed (Neville, 1995). How-
level of water absorption of recycled aggregate increases ever, this reaction enhances the concrete properties, includ-
sorptivity. This suggests that recycled aggregate in concrete ing an increase of compatibility, a lowering segregation,
may impose a high risk to the durability of concrete struc- and densifying the concrete pore structure, thereby resist-
tures in terms of chloride-induced corrosion of steel. Chlo- ing against an attack of external aggressive ions (Schiessl
ride ions will enter the concrete cover containing recycled and Breit, 1996). The present study showed that the com-
aggregate more easily due to a higher rate of permeability pressive strength, ion penetrability and the resistance to
altogether with water sorption, and subsequently reach corrosion for 30% PFA and 65% GGBS concretes contain-
the depth of the steel faster. Then, a rapid build-up of chlo- ing recycled aggregate equated to the levels of control spec-
rides beyond the critical threshold level will corrode the imens or above. This may be due to the fact that PFA
embedded steel. Porous networks will provide an easier refined the concrete pore structures in the finer size (Huss-
access to oxygen and water, which will in turn allow the ain and Rasheeduzafar, 1994), and GGBS increased the
corrosion to accelerate. Hence, it is not advised to use recy- chloride binding capacity and thus removed some of the
cled aggregate in concrete exposed to a corrosive environ- chlorides in the concrete (Dhir et al., 1996).
ment, for example, a marine environment, with no The use of PFA and GGBS has an important implica-
particular protection treatment. tion in corrosion behaviour: it lowers the access of chlo-
 K.Y. Ann et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 993–999
rides and mitigates further development of corrosion after
the onset. A reduction of ion penetrability for 30% PFA
and 65% GGBS concretes containing recycled aggregate
may imply that it will take longer for the corrosion critical
chloride content to reach the depth of the steel and thus the
time to corrosion initiation will be increased (Bamforth,
1999). Also, it was seen in Fig. 6 that 30% PFA and 65%
GGBS concretes containing recycled aggregate were not
effective in increasing the chloride threshold level, which
is strongly associated with the resistance to corrosion initi-
ation, but the rate of corrosion propagation was signifi-
cantly lower than that of the control specimens. This
suggests that the refined denser pore structure by PFA
and GGBS prevents oxygen and water from reaching the
depth of the steel, and thus the cathodic reaction in corro-
sion, strongly related to corrosion propagation, is limited
(Bentur et al., 1997). Consequently, PFA and GGBS may
compensate for the loss of concrete strengths, as well as a
lower level of the resistance to chloride ion permeability
and chloride-induced corrosion by a refinement of the con-
crete pore structure (i.e., filler effect) and chloride binding
to cripple the chloride ions in the corrosion reaction.
Hence, it is expected that the corrosion-free life of 30%
PFA and 65% GGBS concrete containing recycled aggre-
gate will nearly equate to the life of the control specimens.
5. Conclusion
This study used recycled aggregate from crushed con-
crete, and PFA and GGBS were partially replaced for
cement in binder to enhance the concrete properties con-
cerning its durability. The results from the experimental
work are summarized as follows:
(1) The compressive strength of concrete containing
recycled aggregate at 7, 28, 90 and 180 days was
lower than that of the control specimen, but was
recovered by replacing with 30% PFA and 65%
GGBS, which were, however, less effective in increas-
ing the tensile strength at 28 days.
(2) The rapid chloride ion test indicated that the concrete
containing recycled aggregate forms a more open pore
structure, compared to the control specimens. The use
of 30% PFA and 65% GGBS in binder resulted in a
decrease in the charge passed through concrete speci-
mens, which implies the enhanced resistance to chlo-
ride ions permeability into a concrete body.
(3) The corrosion rate of steel in concrete was measured
at 28 days using the polarization method. As a result,
the chloride threshold level for steel corrosion was
not affected by PFA or GGBS, but the OPC concrete
with only recycled aggregate indicated the lowest
level of chloride threshold level. After the onset of
corrosion, the corrosion rate was significantly
999
reduced by PFA and GGBS, due to the restriction
of cathodic reaction, which needs a sufficient supply
of oxygen and water.
References
ASTM C 1202-91, 1991. Standard test method for electrical indication of
concrete’s ability to resist chloride ion penetration.
Bamforth, P.B., 1999. The derivation of input data for modelling chloride
ingress from eight-years UK coastal exposure trials. Magazine of
Concrete Research 51, 87–96.
Bentur, A., Diamond, S., Berke, N.S., 1997. Steel Corrosion in Concrete,
first ed. E&FN SPON.
Broomfield, J.P., 1997. Corrosion of Steel in Concrete – Understanding,
Investigation and Repair. E&FN SPON.
Dhir, R.K., El-Mohr, M.A.K., Dyer, T.D., 1996. Chloride binding in
GGBS concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 26, 1767–1773.
Gonzalez, J.A., Andrade, C., 1982. Effect of carbonation and relative
ambient humidity on the corrosion of galvanised rebars embedded in
concrete. British Corrosion Journal 17, 21–28.
Hussain, S.E., Rasheeduzafar, S., 1994. Corrosion resistance performance
of fly ash blended cement concrete. ACI Material Journal 91, 264–273.
KICT, 2006. Standardization for quality control of construction wastes in
reuse, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Internal Report.
Levy, S.M., Helene, P., 2004. Durability of recycled aggregates concrete: a
safe way to sustainable development. Cement and Concrete Research
34, 1975–1980.
Mesbah, H.A., Buyle-Bodin, F., 1999. Efficiency of polypropylene and
metallic fibres on control of shrinkage and cracking of recycled
aggregate mortars. Construction and Building Materials 13, 439–447.
Neville, A.M., 1995. Properties of Concrete, fourth ed. Longman Group
Ltd..
Oh, B.H., Cha, S.W., Jang, B.S., Jang, S.Y., 2002. Development of high-
performance concrete having high resistance to chloride penetration.
Nuclear Engineering and Design 212, 221–231.
de Oliveira, M.B., Vazquez, E., 1996. The influence of retained moisture in
aggregates from recycling on the properties of new hardened concrete.
Waste Management 16, 113–117.
Olorunsogo, F.T., Padayachee, N., 2002. Performance of recycled
aggregate concrete monitored by durability indexes. Cement and
Concrete Research 32, 179–185.
Poon, C.S., Chan, D., 2006. Paving blocks made with recycled concrete
aggregate and crushed clay brick. Construction and Building Materials
20, 569–577.
Poon, C.S., Shui, Z.H., Shui, Lam, L., 2004. Effect of microstructure of
ITZ on compressive strength of concrete prepared with recycled
aggregates. Construction and Building Materials 18, 461–468.
Sagoe-Crentsil, K.K., Brown, T., Taylor, A.H., 2001. Performance of
concrete made with commercially produced coarse recycled concrete
aggregate. Cement and Concrete Research 31, 707–712.
Sani, D., Moriconi, G., Fava, G., Corinaldesi, V., 2005. Leaching and
mechanical behaviour of concrete manufactured with recycled aggre-
gates. Waste Management 25, 177–182.
Schiessl, P., Breit, W., 1996. Local repair measures at concrete structures
damaged by reinforcement corrosion. In: Page, C.L., Bamforth, P.B.,
Figg, J.W. (Eds.), Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construc-
tion. Cambridge, UK, pp. 525–534.
Topçu, I.B., Sengel, S., 2004. Properties of concretes produced with
waste concrete aggregate. Cement and Concrete Research 34, 1307–
1312.
Tu, T.-Y., Chen, Y.-Y., Hwang, C.-L., 2006. Properties of HPC with
recycled aggregates. Cement and Concrete Research 36, 943–950.