4922 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO.
12, DECEMBER 2020
Scanning the Issue
A Systematic Literature Review About the Impact of
Artificial Intelligence on Autonomous Vehicle Safety
A. M. Nascimento, L. F. Vismari, C. B. S. T. Molina,
P. S. Cugnasca, J. B. Camargo, Jr., J. R. de Almeida, Jr.,
R. Inam, E. Fersman, M. V. Marquezini, and A. Y. Hata
This article presents the state-of-the-art literature about
the artificial intelligence (AI) on the safety of autonomous
vehicles (AVs). Applying a systematic literature review (SLR)
protocol over seven major scientific collections and citation
databases, an initial sample of 4870 studies was retrieved,
filtered, selected, reviewed, and mapped into six categories:
impact on safety, topics, techniques, problem, findings, and
future studies. An AV system model was proposed and applied
to orient the discussions about the SLR results. As one of
the main results, the authors demonstrate that the AI and AV
fields are not strongly influenced by the safety engineering
culture, yet. Therefore, this article reinforces the necessity
for considering a serious safety-oriented research agenda for
future studies on AI-based AV systems.
Power Allocation With Energy Efficiency Optimization
in Cellular D2D-Based V2X Communication Network
H. Xiao, D. Zhu, and A. T. Chronopoulos
In a vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication network,
cellular device-to-device (D2D) communication can not only
improve data rate and spectral utilization but also reduce
the traffic load and power consumption. However, cellular
D2D-based V2X technology has also a potential deficiency
to meet various requirements of V2X communication, partic-
ularly in energy efficiency (EE). Power allocation provides
an important approach to optimize the EE. In this article,
a new approach for power allocation with EE optimization
(EEO) is proposed in cellular D2D-based V2X communication
networks. The mathematical framework of the new approach
is formulated and proved, and an algorithm is also proposed.
Numerical simulation results are provided to demonstrate the
feasibility of the proposed algorithm and the superiority over
existing well-known algorithms.
Toward Driver Face Recognition in the Intelligent Traf-
fic Monitoring Systems
Chang-Hui Hu, Yang Zhang, Fei Wu, Xiaobo Lu, Pan Liu,
Xiao-Yuan Jing
This paper models the driver face recognition problem under
the intelligent traffic monitoring systems as severe illumination
variation face recognition with single sample problem. Firstly,
in the point of view of numerical value sign, the current
illumination invariant unit is derived from the subtraction of
two pixels in the face local region, which may be positive or
negative, we propose a generalized illumination robust (GIR)
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model based on positive and negative illumination invariant
units to tackle severe illumination variations. Then, the GIR
model can be used to generate several GIR images based on
the local edge-region or the local block-region, which results in
the edge-region based GIR (EGIR) image or the block-region
based GIR (BGIR) image. For single GIR image-based clas-
sification, the GIR image utilizes the saturation function and
the nearest neighbor classifier, which can develop EGIR-face
and BGIR-face. For multi GIR images-based classification,
the GIR images employ the extended sparse representation
classification (ESRC) as the classifier that can form the EGIR
image-based classification (GIRC) and the BGIR image-based
classification (BGIRC). Further, the GIR model is integrated
with the pre-trained deep learning (PDL) model to construct
the GIR-PDL model. Finally, the performances of the proposed
methods are verified on the Extended Yale B, CMU PIE,
AR, self-built Driver and VGGFace2 face databases. The
experimental results indicate that the proposed methods are
efficient to tackle severe illumination variations.
Defining Time-to-Collision Thresholds by the Type of
Lead Vehicle in Non-Lane-Based Traffic Environments
S. Das and A. K. Maurya
The current study attempts to provide a copula-based
framework to capture the potential dependence between
time-to-collision (TTC) and centerline separation between the
interacting vehicles in staggered, following the events of
non-lane-based traffic environments. Detailed trajectory data
extracted from the video footage of urban roads were used for
the purpose of this study. Considering the negative association
between the considered variables, the bivariate Frank copula
model is found acceptable to model the bivariate dependency
structure between TTC and CS. In particular, the results of
the study corroborate a pragmatic decreasing relationship of
TTC with the increasing CS and a decrease in lead vehicle
size. Based on the results presented in this article, the authors’
recommendation is to use different minimum TTC thresholds
for different centerline separations and leader-follower pairs to
suitably evaluate traffic safety in such non-lane-based traffic
environments.
Nonlinear Moving Horizon Estimation for Large-Scale
Urban Road Networks
I. I. Sirmatel and N. Geroliminis
The authors propose to use dynamic linear models (DLMs)
to approximate the non-linear traffic states. Unlike a static
linear regression model, the DLMs assume that their parame-
ters are changing across time. Based on their DLM and its
model parameters that are analytically trained using historical
data, the authors suggest an optimal linear predictor in the
minimum mean square error (MMSE) sense. The authors
compare their prediction accuracy of travel time for freeways
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2020
in California (I210-E and I5-S) under highly congested traffic
conditions with other methods: the instantaneous travel time,
k-nearest neighbor, support vector regression, and artificial
neural network. The authors show significant improvements
in accuracy, especially for short-term prediction.
Reliable Smart Road Signs
M. O. Sayin, C.-W. Lin, E. Kang, S. Shiraishi, and T. Başar
One of the future trends in intelligent transportation sys-
tems is “smart road signs” equipped with smart codes on
their surfaces. Smart codes, visible in infrared, will be read
by smart vehicles. Therefore, they can convey much more
detailed information than a classical road sign and can pro-
vide robustness against small-scale adversarial intervention via
error correction methods. In other words, smart codes can
mitigate the adversarial examples issue faced by vision-based
classification algorithms. However, they are still vulnerable
against large-scale adversarial intervention since humans are
now out of the loop by not being able to see or interpret
them. For reliable smart road signs, an adversarial intervention
detection mechanism is presented under a game-theoretical
solution concept. This mechanism ensures certain measures
of guarantees against the worst case intelligent adversarial
interventions even at large scale.
Identifying Atypical Travel Patterns for Improved
Medium-Term Mobility Prediction
R. Herberth, L. Menz, S. Körper, C. Luo, F. Gauterin,
A. Gerlicher, and Q. Wang
This contribution explores the benefits of various predic-
tion approaches for medium-term mobility prediction and
combines them dynamically to predict individual mobility
behavior for a period of one week. The derived framework
utilizes an exhaustive search approach to benefit from a
machine learning-based clustering method on location data.
In conjunction with an artificial neural network, the prediction
framework is more robust against prediction errors created
by atypical travel behavior than existing mobility predic-
tion methods. With two data sets consisting of smartphone
and vehicle data, the framework’s real-world applicability
is demonstrated. This contribution shows that clustering an
individual’s historical movement data and the combination
of different prediction methods can improve the prediction
accuracy. The prediction results illustrate the interrelation of
entropy and prediction accuracy.
Group Cost-Sensitive BoostLR With Vector Form
Decorrelated Filters for Pedestrian Detection
C. Zhou, M. Wu, and S.-K. Lam
A robust and runtime-efficient two-stage pedestrian detec-
tion framework is proposed. The proposed method utilizes
vector-form decorrelated filters to extract more discriminative
features and a group cost-sensitive BoostLR learning algorithm
to explore the variants of negatives mined from the commonly
used hard negative mining strategy in order to improve the
detection performance. The learned vector-form decorrelated
filters are employed in the second detection stage to cap-
ture more details from local regions while benefiting from
4923
low computational complexity compared to the conventional
matrix-form filters. The intrinsic variants in negatives mined
from hard negative mining processes are explored through
the employment of group cost-sensitive BoostLR learning
algorithm.
Exploring Individual Travel Patterns Across Private Car
Trajectory Data
Y. Huang, Z. Xiao, D. Wang, H. Jiang, and D. Wu
The aim of this article is to explore the regularity of
individual mobility and discover travel patterns of private car
users. To that end, the authors propose a data-driven analysis
of individual travel patterns based on a large-scale private car
trajectory dataset. To specify, the authors strive to study the
regularity measurement and unveil the individual travel pattern
based on the private car trajectory data, which can enrich the
understanding of human travel behaviors. One of the main
contributions is to derive an entropy rate formula to quantify
the spatiotemporal regularity of private car trajectories. This is
obtained by designing a clustering technique in order to unfold
the meaningful places of the users, namely the frequently visit
places (FVPs).
Vehicle Identification by Means of Radio-Frequency-
Identification Cards and Magnetic Loops
F. Mocholí Belengue, A. Martínez-Millana,
A. Mocholí Salcedo, and J. H. Arroyo Núñez
At present, many detectors installed on both urban and
interurban roads are capable of classifying and extracting
information from vehicles such as speed, length, or direc-
tion of traffic. However, very few sensors are currently able
to communicate and exchange information with vehicles in
real time. For this reason and due to the existing need for
vehicle-infrastructure communication in intelligent transporta-
tion systems (ITS), the use of radio-frequency-identification
cards together with the magnetic loops already in operation
on the road is proposed as a way to extract and exchange
information about different vehicles through bidirectional
communication, whose implementation will lead to many
applications.
Short-Term Traffic Flow Forecasting: A Component-
Wise Gradient Boosting Approach With Hierarchical
Reconciliation
Z. Li, Z. Zheng, and S. Washington
A gradient boosting procedure in combination with hier-
archical reconciliation is proposed for short-term forecasting
of the traffic flow by focusing on three main characteristics
of traffic flow: the temporal and spatial patterns, interactions
between the temporal and spatial patterns, and the dynamics
of traffic flow at different spatial aggregation levels. The per-
formance of the proposed forecasting framework is examined
by comparing it with three frequently used methods and using
three distinctive datasets. Overall, the gradient boosting based
approach offers a highly flexible and automated way to learn
useful information in large datasets, which is particularly
advantageous for forecasting traffic flow in a complex road
network at longer forecasting horizons.
4924 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2020
Exploiting Redundancy for Reliability Analysis of
Sensor Perception in Automated Driving Vehicles
M. Berk, O. Schubert, H.-M. Kroll, B. Buschardt,
and D. Straub
For automated driving, the perception provided by LiDAR,
radar, and camera sensors is safety-critical. Validating sensor
perception reliability with standard empirical tests is imprac-
tical, owing to the large required test effort and the need
for a reference truth to identify sensor errors. To address
these challenges, the authors investigate the possibility of
estimating sensor perception reliability without a reference
truth. In particular, the authors propose a framework to
learn sensor perception reliability solely by exploiting sensor
redundancies. The proposed framework is a step toward the
validation of sensor perception reliability because it could
enable the learning of reliabilities from a fleet of driver-
controlled vehicles equipped with series sensors.
Fast Pedestrian Detection With Attention-Enhanced
Multi-Scale RPN and Soft-Cascaded Decision Trees
H. Wang, Y. Li, and S. Wang
Although deeply learned object detectors like faster R-CNN
have shown outstanding performance for general object detec-
tion, they are still facing the problem of poor accuracy in
pedestrian detection tasks. This article proposes a multiscale
region proposal framework to handle large-scale variance of
pedestrian targets and introduces feature enhancement based
on large receptive fields and attention mechanism to sup-
press false positives including double detections, body parts,
and background clutters. Compared with the state-of-the-art,
the authors obtain the competitive accuracy with near real-time
efficiency.
Coordinated Charging Scheduling of Electric Vehicles:
A Mixed-Variable Differential Evolution Approach
W.-L. Liu, Y.-J. Gong, W.-N. Chen, Z. Liu, H. Wang,
and J. Zhang
The electric vehicle charging scheduling (EVCS) is formu-
lated as a hierarchical mixed-variable optimization problem,
by considering the dependency among the station selection,
the charging option at each station and the charging amount
settings. To adapt to the new problem model, a mixed-
variable differentiate evolution is specifically designed as the
scheduling algorithm for the proposed EVCS system. The
experimental results validate the effectiveness of the pro-
posed system on both synthetic and real-world transportation
networks.
Surrounding Vehicle Detection Using an FPGA
Panoramic Camera and Deep CNNs
L. Chen, Q. Zou, Z. Pan, D. Lai, L. Zhu, Z. Hou, J. Wang,
and D. Cao
An embedded FPGA design was put forward to build a
wireless panoramic camera system for real-time and seam-
less imaging of the 360-degree driving scene. Meanwhile,
a fast-deep learning-based method—EZ-Net—was devel-
oped for surrounding vehicle detection, running at a speed
of 140 frames/s on the panoramic video.
Time Optimal Routing of Electric Vehicles Under
Consideration of Available Charging Infrastructure and
a Detailed Consumption Model
F. Morlock, B. Rolle, M. Bauer, and O. Sawodny
A two-staged approach to compute time-optimal routes for
electric vehicles is presented. Available charging infrastructure
and data on a reduced road network are obtained from cloud-
based services. A detailed and validated consumption model
is considered to obtain accurate consumption forecasts on
the road network. The resulting combinatorial optimization
problem is derived and expressed in the form of a mathe-
matical graph. Route and charging decisions, as well as the
target speed on highways, present the degrees of freedom and
the time-optimal solution is computed using a multiobjective
Moore–Bellman–Ford algorithm. The proposed methodology
includes the consideration of time-consuming charging stops
in the routing problem for electric vehicles showing reasonable
computation time and potential for reducing the overall trip
time.
Weigh-In-Motion System in Flexible Pavements
Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors Part A:
Concept
M. Al-Tarawneh, Y. Huang, P. Lu, and R. Bridgelall
This article introduces a weigh-in-motion (WIM) sys-
tem based on in-pavement, three-dimensional glass-fiber-
reinforced, polymer-packaged fiber Bragg grating sensors
(3D GFRP-FBG) that functions at both low-speeds and high-
speeds in flexible pavements. Theoretic study shows that the
presented WIM system is very sensitive to sensor instal-
lation depth, pavement property, and load location. Testing
performed in the field validated the effectiveness of the
developed system and also demonstrated the need for future
study on the sensitivity of the system for potential practical
applications.
Energy-Efficient Timely Truck Transportation for
Geographically-Dispersed Tasks
Q. Liu, H. Zeng, and M. Chen
A common truck operation scenario is considered, where
a truck drives across a national highway to fulfill multiple
tasks in a specific order. The objective is to minimize fuel
consumption under task pickup and delivery time window
constraints, by jointly optimizing task execution times, path
planning, and speed planning. The need to coordinate exe-
cution times for multiple tasks differentiates this study from
existing ones on a single task. For this problem, both a
fully polynomial-time approximation scheme and an efficient
heuristic with theoretical performance guarantee are devel-
oped. The practical performances of the proposed solutions
are evaluated by simulations using real-world traces over U.S.
national highway. They save 22% fuel than fastest-/shortest-
path baselines, and 10% fuel than a conceivable alternative
generalized from the state-of-the-art single-task algorithm.
The fuel-saving is robust to the number of tasks to be
fulfilled.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2020
A Robust Active Safety Enhancement Strategy With
Learning Mechanism in Vehicular Networks
C. Chen, C. Wang, T. Qiu, Z. Xu, and H. Song
A multilevel active safety control strategy for rear-end
accident avoidance is proposed in this article. The proposal
takes the 3M, i.e., multisource, multiparameter, and multi-
purpose properties of an accident into consideration to evaluate
the driving safety. Extreme learning machine is adopted as a
verification scheme for safety distance calculation. In addition,
a three-level active safety control scheme using the Linear
Quadratic Gaussian optimal-control is carried out based on
evaluated safety inter-vehicle distance. Simulation and road
test results demonstrate that the time complexity and effective-
ness of the proposed model outperforms some latest works.
Monitoring Large Railways Infrastructures Using
Hybrid Optical Fibers Sensor Systems
P. Velha, T. Nannipieri, A. Signorini, M. Morosi, M. Solazzi,
F. Barone, A. Frisoli, L. Ricciardi, R. Eusepi, M. Icardi,
G. Recchia, M. Lupi, G. Arcoleo, P. Firmi, and F. Di Pasquale
The authors present a novel hybrid fiber optics sensor sys-
tem, based on Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG) and Raman distrib-
uted temperature sensing (RDTS), for monitoring critical sites
within large railway infrastructures where the geometrical rail
track condition is monitored in real-time, providing an early
warning if pre-defined thresholds are exceeded. The proposed
technology has been first validated in railway laboratories and
then in field trials confirming its capabilities to detect defects
over pre-established thresholds and the absence of false alarms
with regular train circulation.
Lane Width Estimation in Work Zones Using
LiDAR-Based Mobile Mapping Systems
R. Ravi, Y.-T. Cheng, Y.-C. Lin, Y.-J. Lin,
S. M. Hasheminasab, T. Zhou, J. E. Flatt, and A. Habib
Lane width evaluation is one of the crucial aspects in road
safety inspection, especially in work zones where a narrow
lane width can result in a reduced roadway capacity and also
increase the probability of severe accidents. Using mobile
mapping systems (MMS) equipped with laser scanners is a
safe and cost-effective method for rapidly collecting detailed
information along the road surface. This article presents an
approach to derive lane width estimates using point clouds
acquired from a geometrically calibrated mobile mapping
system. Lane markings are identified based on intensity data
and processed further to estimate lane width and identify areas
with narrow lanes and ambiguous or missing lane markings.
The algorithm is found to provide lane width estimates with
an accuracy of 3 cm. The proposed algorithm is also found
to be capable of estimating lane width in areas with curved
lanes, merging lanes, or areas leading to exit ramps.
Exploring the Potential of Twitter to Understand Traffic
Events and Their Locations in Greater Mumbai, India
R. D. Das and R. S. Purves
Detecting traffic events and their locations is important
for an effective transportation management system and better
4925
urban policy-making. Currently, traffic events are detected
through static sensors, e.g., CCTV cameras, loop detec-
tors. However, they have limited spatial coverage and high
maintenance cost. To address these issues, this research
explored if user-generated contents, e.g., Twitter could be
used as an alternate source of traffic information in resource-
constrained regions. Since Twitter is disabling precise geo-
tagging facility in the tweet metadata, this research study
has developed a novel solution to retrieve traffic events and
their locations from the informal tweet contents in Greater
Mumbai, India, through a hybrid machine learning approach
and vernacular geography. The results suggest that peo-
ple in Greater Mumbai act as social sensors and provide
important traffic information, which can be used to com-
plement existing physical transport infrastructure in a cost-
effective manner to manage transport services in the urban
environment.
A Deep Learning Model for Transportation Mode
Detection Based on Smartphone Sensing Data
X. Liang, Y. Zhang, G. Wang, and S. Xu
Understanding people’s transportation modes is beneficial
for many civilian applications, such as urban transportation
planning. With the popularity of smartphones, using smart-
phones to obtain this information is more convenient than
traditional surveys. This article presents a light-weighted and
energy-efficient system based on deep learning to detect
transportation modes using only accelerometer sensors in
smartphones. The system collects accelerometer data in an effi-
cient way, pre-processes the data to remove noise, and lever-
ages a convolutional neural network to determine transporta-
tion modes. Different architectures and classification methods
are compared with the proposed convolutional neural net-
work to optimize the system design. Performance evaluation
shows that the proposed new approach achieves better accu-
racy than existing works in detecting people’s transportation
modes.
A Discrete-Continuous Hybrid Approach to Periodic
Routing of Waste Collection Vehicles With Recycling
Operations
C. Lei, Z. Jiang, and Y. Ouyang
Waste management agencies need to plan their waste
collection activities in an efficient way such that they not
only provide high-quality and timely service to customers
but also maximize their net profit from recyclable waste.
A mixed-integer linear program model is proposed for the
waste collection problem while considering recycling oper-
ations at the sorting facility. A hybrid solution approach
with both discrete and continuous optimization components
is developed. The continuous component derives asymptotic
routing cost formulas based on continuous approximation, and
it is integrated into the discrete optimization component via
an iterative stochastic approximation procedure. Numerical
results show that the proposed model and hybrid solution
approach significantly outperform state-of-the-art benchmark
algorithms in the literature.
4926 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2020
Proactive Power Management Scheme for Hybrid
Electric Storage System in EVs: An MPC Method
Y. Hu, C. Chen, T. He, J. He, X. Guan, and B. Yang
A hybrid electric storage system (HESS) is a promising
power supply for electric vehicles (EVs) to prolong battery
cycling life. This article investigated the power splitting prob-
lem of the HESS in EVs. An MPC-based proactive power
management scheme is proposed to balance the discharging
power between batteries and supercapacitors to satisfy the
driving power demand of vehicles as well as reducing the
battery degradation rate. The effectiveness of the proposed
scheme is demonstrated with simulation results.
Disparity Estimation Using Stereo Images With
Different Focal Lengths
V. Q. Dinh, F. Munir, A. M. Sheri, and M. Jeon
This study proposes a disparity estimation method for
images captured by cameras with different focal lengths.
On the other hand, a short focal length camera captures a close
scene, a long focal length camera captures a far scene. The pro-
posed method computes full disparity maps for both the close
and far scenes. To achieve this, the authors introduce a stereo
rectification method that works directly on images with differ-
ent focal lengths and parameterizes the zoom levels between
the two cameras. To evaluate the proposed method, the authors
set up a stereo system with two cameras with different focal
lengths and captured sequences of stereo images. In addition,
the authors used stereo datasets to simulate images with
different focal lengths. The experimental results show that the
proposed disparity estimation method successfully computed
disparity maps for both near and far scenes, with significantly
better performance than state-of-the-art monocular disparity
estimation methods. Source code is available online.
Driver Danger-Level Monitoring System Using Multi-
Sourced Big Driving Data
J.-L. Yin, B.-H. Chen, and K.-H. R. Lai
A danger-level analysis framework for dealing with high
variety and high-volume problems of multisourced driving
data is proposed in this article. The proposed framework first
employs a feature extraction operation to extract collaborative
features into a linear model for dealing with the issue of high
variety in multisourced driving data. Next, the danger-level
analysis is formulated as a multiobjective pursuit problem in
this linear model. Then a multiobjective genetic algorithm
embedded with semi-supervised learning functions is devised
to address the problem of high-volume. The experimental
results indicate that the proposed framework outperforms
existing machine learning techniques for multisourced driving
data.
Space Distribution Method for Autonomous Vehicles at
a Signalized Multi-Lane Intersection
T. T. Phan, D. Ngoduy, and L. B. Le
This article puts forward a bi-level control framework to
optimize the intersection throughput. In the proposed method,
the upper level (i.e., the intersection controller) is used to opti-
mize the lane usages of each approach and the AVs’ positions.
On the contrary, the lower level (i.e., the vehicle controllers)
receives information from the upper level to control the AVs to
get the maximum speed. More specifically, in the upper level,
a novel Space Distribution Method (SDM) is applied for the
AVs to maximize the throughput (i.e., a number of AVs) of the
(multilane) intersection where signal timings are predefined.
The SDM is divided into three steps: i) platoon formulation;
ii) lane-mode optimization; and iii) AVs’ position distribution.
Numerical simulations are set up to show that the throughput
increases significantly, even more than twice the throughput
obtained from other methods in some circumstances.
Are Object Detection Assessment Criteria Ready for
Maritime Computer Vision?
D. K. Prasad, H. Dong, D. Rajan, and C. Quek
Autonomous maritime navigation is the future of maritime
shipping. Detection and tracking for collision avoidance man-
date that the authors assess the presence, distance, and speed of
the maritime vessels accurately. Convention assessment met-
rics like intersection over union (Jaccard index), intersection
over ground truth (sensitivity) criteria for detection accuracy
are shown to fail for the maritime problem, thanks to diverse
challenges. This is a major roadblock in the development of
autonomous maritime navigation technology. The bottom edge
proximity proposed in the latest article “Are object detection
assessment criteria ready for maritime computer vision?” will
remove this obstacle and pave the path for faster development
of autonomous detection and tracking suitable for maritime
situational awareness.
Robust Connectivity With Multiple Directional
Antennas for Vehicular Communications
K. K. Nagalapur, E. G. Ström, F. Brännström, J. Carlsson,
and K. Karlsson
For critical vehicular communication services, such as traffic
safety and traffic efficiency, it is advisable to design systems
with robustness as the main criteria, possibly at the price
of reduced peak performance and efficiency. In this article,
the authors describe a simple, low-cost method for combining
the output of L directional (i.e., not omnidirectional) anten-
nas to the input of a single-port receiver with the aim to
guarantee robustness, i.e., to minimize the probability that
K consecutive packets arriving from the worst-case angle-
of-arrival are decoded incorrectly. To minimize complexity,
the combining network does not estimate or use channel
state information. In an experimental setup consisting of two
monopole antennas mounted on the roof of a Volvo XC90,
the proposed combining method is shown to give significant
performance gains, compared to using any one of the antennas.
An Early Classification Approach for Multivariate Time
Series of On-Vehicle Sensors in Transportation
A. Gupta, H. P. Gupta, B. Biswas, and T. Dutta
An early classification approach is proposed to classify the
type of road surface using multivariate time series data of
the sensors. In the approach, the sensors are allowed to have
different sampling rates. This approach uses a probabilistic
classifier to estimate the minimum number of data points of the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2020
time series that can classify the road surface with the desired
level of accuracy. The estimated data points help to know
the right time for classifying an incoming multivariate time
series, which is being generated by the on-vehicle sensors.
The effectiveness of the proposed approach is validated by
conducting different experiments on the collected road surface
dataset and three publicly available datasets.
Spatio-Temporal Ensemble Method for Car-Hailing
Demand Prediction
Y. Liu, C. Lyu, A. Khadka, W. Zhang, and Z. Liu
With ensemble learning, several models can be combined
into a single demand predictive model, achieving low predic-
tion error. Nevertheless, the existing ensemble methods are not
intended for spatio-temporal data and thus cannot deal with
it. In this article, a spatio-temporal data ensemble model is
4927
proposed to predict car-hailing demands. Treating the predic-
tion results as various channels of an image, the proposed
ensemble module first compresses and then restores the results
using the fully convolutional network. In addition, a skip
connection is used to preserve both the fine-grained informa-
tion in the shallow layers and the deep coarse information.
Based on the principle of the model as a service, any model
can be plugged into the authors’ framework as base models
to improve the prediction accuracy. The experimental results
demonstrate the effectiveness of the presented model.
Azim Eskandarian, Editor-in-Chief
Nicholas and Rebecca Des Champs Professor
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA