Computer Memory

Memory Hierarchy
• The memory in a computer system is of three fundamental types:
1. Internal Processor Memory: This memory is placed in the CPU or is attached
to a special fast bus. Internal memory usually includes cache memory and
special registers, both of which can be directly accessed by the processor.
This memory is used to store temporary storage of data and instructions on
which the CPU is currently working. Processor memory is the fasted among
all the memory but is also the most expensive.
2. Primary Memory: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory(ROM) fall in the category of the primary memory, also known as
main memory.
3. Secondary Memory: Also known as auxiliary memory, secondary memory
provides backup storage for instructions and data. The most commonly used
secondary memory is Hard Disk. Secondary memory can be used as virtual
memory when the capacity of the main memory is surpassed. It is to be
noted that unlike processor memory and main memory, secondary memory
is not directly accessible by the processor.
 Memory Hierarchy
low high

Internal processor
Memory

Primary Memory

Secondary memory
slow
 General Properties of a Memory
Device
• Access Time:
– Performance of a memory device is primarily determined by the rate
at which information can be read from or written into the memory.
– A convenient performance measure is the average time required to
read a fixed amount of information from the memory. This is called
access time.
– Memory device with low access time is generally expensive, while low
cost memories are relatively slow.
• Cost:
– To the user, the cost of a memory unit is most meaningfully measured
by the purchase price.
– The price should include not only the cost of the information storage
but also the cost of the peripheral equipment or access circuitry
essential to the operation of the memory.
 Cont….
• Access Mode:
– One of the important properties of a memory device is the order or
sequence in which information can be accessed.
– Two main types of memory access techniques are:
• Random-access
• Serial-access.
– If memory locations may be accessed in any order and access is time
independent of the location being accessed, the memory is termed as
random-access memory (RAM). Ferrite-core and semiconductor
memories are of this type.
– If storage location can be accessed only in certain predetermined
sequence then the memory is called serial-access memory. Magnetic-
tape and optical memories are serial access memory.
 Cont….
• Alterability:
– Memories whose contents cannot be altered is called read-only
memory (ROM).
– A ROM is a nonerasable storage device, ROMs are widely used to store
permanent programs.
– A ROM whose contents can be changed with the help of special
instruments is called programmable ROM.
– RAM is basically a read/write memory. Information can be written into
or read from RAM while it is in use.
– The contents of secondary storage devices can also be changed.
 Cont…
• Cycle-time and Data Transfer Rate:
– The minimum time between two consecutive memory access
operations is called the cycle time.
– It is generally assumed that cycle time is the time needed to complete
any read or write operation in the memory.
– The maximum amount of information that can be transferred to or
from the memory every second is called the data transfer rate.
– The data-transfer rate is measured in bits or words per second.
– A factor limiting memory bandwidth is the memory bus width, which
is the number of bits that can be transferred simultaneously over the
memory bus.
 Cont…
• Memory Capacity:
– Memory capacity is the number of 0s or 1s that a memory can hold.
The following terms are used to denote memory capacity:
➢ Bit: in binary system 0 or 1 is called a bit
➢ Byte: a group of 8 bits is called a byte. A byte is used to represent one
character, a digit (1,3 etc.) or a special character ($,@ etc.)
➢ Kilobyte: A kilobyte(KB) is about 1,000 bytes (precisely 1,024 bytes)
➢ Megabyte: a megabyte (MB) is about 1,000 KB
➢ Gigabyte: A gigabyte (GB) is about 1,000MB
 ROM
• ROM is a non-volatile memory where start up instructions are stored.
• The non-volatile memory not only performs read operations but restrict
themselves to be altered and, therefore making it much safer and secure
than RAM.
• ROM is used not only in the computer but also in other electronic items
like washing machine and microwave oven.
• Generally, designers program ROM chips at the time of manufacturing
circuits. Burning appropriate electronic fuses to form patterns of binary
information does programming.
• ROM can have information written into it only one time. No electric
current is required for the information to remain stored.
 ROM
• ROM is a non-volatile memory where start up instructions are stored.
• The non-volatile memory not only performs read operations but restrict
themselves to be altered and, therefore making it much safer and secure
than RAM.
• ROM is used not only in the computer but also in other electronic items
like washing machine and microwave oven.
• Generally, designers program ROM chips at the time of manufacturing
circuits. Burning appropriate electronic fuses to form patterns of binary
information does programming.
• ROM can have information written into it only one time. No electric
current is required for the information to remain stored.
 Types of ROM
• Masked ROM: The very fast ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a
pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as
masked ROM. The contents of such ROMs have to be specified before chip
production.
• Programmable ROM: These ROMs can be programmed. Blank PROM chips
can be bought and coded by anyone with a special tool such as PROM-
programmers. However, once a PROM is programmed, its contents can never
be changed. The information stored in PROM is non-volatile but they are more
fragile than other ROMs as a jolt of static electricity can easily cause fuses in
the PROM to burn out, changing essential bit patterns from 1 to 0. But blank
PROM is cheap.
• Erasable Programmable ROM: An EPROM is programmed in exactly the
same manner as a PROM.But unlike PROM, EPROM can be erased and
reprogrammed repeatedly. It can be erased by simply exposing the device to a
strong source of ultraviolate light for a certain amount of time. An EPROM
eraser is not selective; it will erase the entire EPROM. Though EPROM is more
expensive but its ability to reprogram makes it an essential part of the
software development and testing process.
 Types of ROM (Cont.)
• Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM: This type of ROM can
be erased by an electrical charge and then written to by using slightly
higher-than-normal voltage. EEPROM can be erased one byte at a time.
Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow. As these chips
can be changed without opening a casing, they are often used to store
programmable instructions in devices like printers.
• Flash ROM: is also called flash BIOS or flash memory, is a type of
constantly powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and re-
programmed in blocks. Flash memory is often used to hold control code
such as the BIOS in a personal computer. The flash memory can be re-
written in block (rather than byte) sizes, making it easy to update. Flash
memory is used in digital cellular phones, digital cameras and other
devices.
 RAM
• RAM is temporary storage that can be read from or written into by
the user.
• RAM is used primarily to store user program and data.
• The content of the RAM is volatile and is lost when the power is
removed.
• When the system is powered up, programs and data to be used
must be read into RAM.
• Access time for data stored in RAM generally ranges from a
microsecond to a few nenoseconds
• Both RAM and ROM semiconductor memory
• RAM fall into two main catagories
– Static RAM
– Dynamic RAM
 Difference between SRAM and DRAM
SRAM DRAM
1. SRAM stands for Static Random DRAM stands for Dynamic Random
Access Memory Access Memory
2. High speed RAM Low speed RAM
3. SRAM is costly Relatively low cost
4. Does not require refreshing Require refreshing periodically
5. Generally used for cache Used for main memory
6. Control complexity is less Relatively high control complexity
Difference between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
1. RAM stands for Random Access ROM stands for Read Only Memory
Memory
2. User can read or write into it User can only read from it
3. For any type of processing, user must Manufacturer stores instruction into
store program and data into RAM the ROM
4. Volatile Memory Non-volatile memory