Materials Science involves investigating the relationships that

exist between the structures and properties of materials.

Materials Engineering is designing or engineering the
structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of
properties
Structure- structure of a material usually relates to the
arrangement of its internal components.
Properties of Materials:
 Mechanical Properties - relate deformation to an
applied load or force (elasticity, plasticity and flow,
strength and fracture)
 Electrical and Electronic Properties - stimulus is an
electric field (conductivity, resistivity, dielectric
properties, relaxation interactions)
 Thermal Properties – describes the thermal behavior
of solids (heat capacity, thermal conductivity,
thermal radiation, thermal protection, thermal
stresses and shocks)
 Magnetic Properties - demonstrate the response of
a material to the application of a magnetic field
(diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnectic and
ferromagnetic)
 Optical Properties - the stimulus is electromagnetic
or light radiation (index of refraction and reflectivity)
 Deteriorative Properties - indicate the chemical
reactivity of materials resulting in actual material
loss either by dissolution (corrosion) and or by the
formation of nonmetallic scale or film (oxidation)
 POLYMERS
 include the familiar plastic and rubber materials
mostly organic compounds that are chemically based
on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements
 have very large molecular structures
 Typically have low densities and may be extremely
flexible.
COMPOSITES
 materials that have been engineered to consist of
more than one material type
 designed to display a combination of the best
characteristics of each of the component materials.
SEMICONDUCTORS
 have electrical properties that are intermediate
between the electrical conductors and insulators
 have totally revolutionized the electronics and
computer industries over the past two decades.
BIOMATERIALS
 employed in components implanted into the human
body for replacement of diseased or damaged body
parts

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS:  these materials must not produce toxic substances

 METALS
 metallic materials are normally combinations of
metallic elements
 have large number of nonlocalized electrons
 extremely good conductors of electricity and heat
 not transparent to visible light
 strong, yet deformable, which accounts for their
extensive use in structural applications.
and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must
not cause adverse biological reactions).
 all of the above materials—metals, ceramics,
polymers, composites, and semiconductors may be
used as biomaterials.
ADVANCED MATERIAL— These are materials that are utilized
in high-technology applications.

 CERAMICS

 compounds between metallic and non-metallic

elements; most frequently oxides, nitrides &
carbides

 include ceramics that are composed of clay minerals,

cement and glass

 typically insulative to the passage of electricity and

heat, and are more resistant to high temperatures
and harsh environments than metals and polymers

 hard but brittle

HIGH TECHNOLOGY would mean a device or product that
operates or functions using relatively intricate and
sophisticated principles
WHAT IS CRYTALLOGRAPHY?
 Originated as the study of macroscopic crystal forms
 Modern crystallography has been redefined by X-ray
Diffraction.
 Its primary concern is with the study of atomic
arrangements in crystalline materials.
SINGLE CRYSTALS
 For a crystalline solid, when the periodic and
repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect or extends
throughout the entirety of the specimen without
interruption, the result is a single crystal.
 the crystal will assume a regular geometric shape
having flat faces, as with some of the gem stones;
the shape is indicative of the crystal structure.

CRYSTAL
 A region of matter within which the atoms are
arranged in a three-dimensional translationally
periodic pattern. (Buerger (1956)

CRYSTALLINE MATERIAL
 is one in which the atoms are situated in a repeating
or periodic array over large atomic distances.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
 the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are
spatially arranged.

NONCRSYTALLINE OR AMORPHOUS MATERIALS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS

 Materials that do not crystallize.
 Most crystalline solids are composed of a collection
of many small crystals or grains; such materials are
UNIT CELL
termed polycrystalline
 the smallest structural unit or building block that can
describe the crystal structure. Repetition of the unit
cell generates the entire crystal.
 chosen to represent the symmetry of the crystal
structure, wherein all the atom positions in the
crystal may be generated by translations of the unit
cell integral distances along each of its edges

 smallest repetitive volume which contains the

complete lattice pattern of a crystal.
 Unit cells for most crystal structures are
parallelepipeds or prisms having three sets of
parallel faces.
CRYSTAL LATTICE
ATOMIC HARD SPHERE MODEL
 a three-dimensional array of points coinciding with
atom positions (or sphere centers)  Atoms (or ions) are thought of as being solid
spheres having well-defined diameters
 the periodic and systematic arrangement of atoms  Spheres representing nearest- neighbour atoms
that are found in crystals with the exception of touch one another.
amorphous solids and gases
 can be considered as the points of intersection TWO OTHER IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A CRYSTAL
between straight lines in a three-dimensional STRUCTURE:
network.
 COORDINATION NUMBER
 the number of nearest-neighbor or touching atoms
  ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR (APF)
 the fraction of solid sphere volume in a unit cell

METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

 Atomic bonding is metallic, which is nondirectional in

nature

 No restrictions to the number and position of

nearest-neighbor atoms

 Large number of nearest neighbors and dense

atomic packings

Ceramics are composed of at least two elements, and

often more, their crystal structures are generally
more complex than those for metals.

 Atomic bonding can be ionic to totally covalent.
 When bonding is predominantly ionic, crystal
structures can be thought of as composed of
electrically charged ions instead of atoms.
 Metallic ions, or cations – positively charged
 Nonmetallic ions, or anions – negatively charged
Two characteristics that influence the
crystal structure:
 The magnitude of the electrical charge on each of
the component ions
 The relatives sizes of the cations and anions
CERAMIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
  The crystal must be electrically neutral; that is, all
the cation positive charges must be balanced by an
equal number of anion negative charges
 Cations are ordinarily smaller than anions;
 Each cation prefers to have as many nearest-
neighbor anions as possible. The anions also desire a
maximum number of cation nearest neighbors.
Stable and unstable anion–cation coordination
configurations:
 Open circles represent anions; colored circles denote
cations.
 The coordination number for ceramic materials is
the number of anion nearest neighbors for a cation;
also related to cation-anion radius ratio. SILICATE CERAMICS
 Silicates are materials composed primarily of silicon
and oxygen, the two most abundant elements in the
earth’s crust; consequently, the bulk of soils, rocks,
clays, and sand come under the silicate classification
 There are three primary polymorphic crystalline
forms of silica: quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite

AX – TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

 Ceramic materials with equal numbers of cations and
anions are often referred to as AX compounds,
where A denotes the cation and X the anion.
 There are several different crystal structures for AX
compounds; each is normally named after a common
material that assumes the particular structure.

AMXP – TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

 If charges on the cations and anions are not the
same, a compound can exist with the chemical
formula AmXp, where m and/or p ≠ 1.

AMBNXP – TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

 It is possible for ceramic compounds to have more
than one type of cation; for two types of cations
(represented by A and B), their chemical formula
may be designated as AmBnXp.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS AND PLANES
 Labeling conventions have been established in which
three integers or indices are used to designate
directions and planes.
 The basis for determining index values is the unit
cell, with a coordinate system consisting of three (x,
y, and z) axes situated at one of the corners and
coinciding with the unit cell edges.
A CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTION is defined as a line
between two points, or a vector.
MILLER INDEX
 series of coprime integers that are inversely
proportional to the intercepts of the crystal face or
crystallographic planes with the edges of the unit
cell.
 It describes the orientation of a plane in the 3-D
lattice with respect to the axes.
 The general form of the Miller index is (h, k, l) where
h, k, and l are integers related to the unit cell along
the a, b, c crystal axes.
IMPERFECTIONS IN
SOLIDS
DEFECTS IN SOLID:
0D Point defects – atoms missing or
in irregular places in the lattice
 Vacancies
 Interstitials
 Impurities, weight and
atomic composition
1D Linear Defects/ Dislocations –
groups of atoms in irregular positions
 Edge Dislocation
 Screw Dislocations
2D Planar Defects – the interfaces between the
homogeneous regions of the material
 External Surfaces
 Grain boundaries -Tilt –Twist
3D Bulk or Volume Defects – extended defects (pores, cracks)
Atomic vibrations
Defects have a profound impact on the properties
of materials
Processing determines the defects
 STOICHIOMETRY
 a state for ionic compounds wherein there is the
exact ratio of cations to anions as predicted by the
chemical formula If no other defects are present, the
material is said to be stoichiometric.
 A ceramic compound is nonstoichiometric if there is
any deviation from the exact ratio of cations to
anions. - occurs for some ceramic materials in which
two valence (or ionic) states exist for one of the ion
types

THERMOMECHANICAL PROCESSING
 a metallurgical process that combines mechanical or
plastic deformation process like compression or
forging, rolling etc. with thermal processes like heat
treatment, water quenching, heating and cooling at
various rates into a single process
Point Defects
(1) vacancy
(2) self-interstitial
(3) interstitial impurity
(4,5) substitutional impurities
Vacancy - a lattice position that is vacant because the atom is
missing
Interstitial - an atom that occupies a place outside the normal
lattice position. - may be the same type of atom as the others
(self interstitial) or an impurity interstitial atom.

Self-interstitials
 in metals introduce large distortions in the
surrounding lattice
 the energy of self-interstitial formation is ~ 3 times
larger as compared to vacancies (Qi ~ 3×Qv)
 equilibrium concentration of self-interstitials is very
low (less than one self-interstitial per cm3 at room
T).
Impurities
 atoms which are different from the host
 May be intentional or unintentional All real solids are
impure. Very pure metals - 99.9999%
 one impurity per 106 atoms
ELECTRONEUTRALITY
 the state that exists when there are equal numbers
of positive and negative charges from the ions
 defects in ceramics do not occur alone
Solid Solutions
 made of a host (the solvent or matrix) which
dissolves the minor component (solute) The ability
to dissolve is called solubility.
Solvent: in an alloy, the element or compound present in
greater amount
Solute: in an alloy, the element or compound present in
lesser amount
Solid Solution:
homogeneous
crystal structure is maintained
contains randomly dispersed impurities (substitutional or
interstitial)
Second Phase: As solute atoms are added, new compounds /
structures are formed, or solute forms local precipitates.

Alloys - deliberate mixtures of metals

Example: sterling silver - 92.5% silver , 7.5% copper alloy -
stronger than pure silver
 (e.g. liquid drop) • Solid surfaces can “reconstruct”
to satisfy atomic bonds at surfaces.
Grain Boundaries
 Polycrystalline material - comprised of many small
crystals or grains
 The grains have different crystallographic
orientation. There exist atomic mismatch within the
regions where grains meet. These regions are called
grain boundaries.

PLANAR/INTERFACIAL DEFECTS

External Surfaces
 Surface atoms have unsatisfied atomic bonds, and
higher energies than the bulk atoms ⇒ Surface
energy, γ (J/m2) • Surface areas tend to minimize