Conflict Resolution

Introduction

What is conflict?

Conflict can be defined as the existence of non-compatibility or disagreements between

two actors (Individuals, groups, organizations or nations) in their interaction over the issues of

interests, values, beliefs, emotions, goals, space, positions, scarce resources etc.

According to Fink, conflict is defined as any "situation or process in which two or more

social entities are linked by at least one form of antagonistic psychological relation or at least one

form of antagonistic interaction". (Joshi, 2014, p.2)

However, Coser (1956) defined conflict as "A struggle over values and claims to scarce

status, power and resources, a struggle in which the aims of opponents are to neutralize, injure or

eliminate rivals"(p.2).

Conflict is a universal feature of human society that is an integral part of economic

differentiation, social change, cultural formation, psychological development and political

organization-each one of them being inherently conflictual. Either the real or perceived mutually

incompatible agendas or goals shape and help conflict parties concretize. Conflict situations

could occur at various levels but it is identified at the level it is contested and by the issues it is

fought over, for example, scarce resources, unequal relations or competing values. The issues

themselves may change with time or may itself be disputed over time.

Although the word conflict evokes negative connotations but it is an integral part of all

relationships. Although conflict often is perceived as negative it has the potential to contribute
positively to both the quality of relationship and personal development. Effective conflict

resolution is associated with overall social competence in adolescents through the component

skills of problem solving, decision making, communication, and coping (Joshi, 2014).

Interpersonal conflict

Interpersonal conflict is characterized by opposition and disagreement. Conflict can take

place within a dyad or as a function of family or group membership (Maccoby, 1988). Deutsch

(1973) described conflicts as either constructive or destructive. Destructive conflicts transgress

the immediate issues and coercion, threats or the use of state power are the strategies employed

to tackle them. In short brute force is employed to settle the issue. Contrary to the destructive

conflicts, the constructive conflicts focus on the presenting issue and are addressed through

negotiation and compromise as conflict resolution strategies. (Joshi, 2014)

What is Conflict resolution?

In conflict resolution, the aim is not to avoid conflict but rather to deal with it in a way

which minimizes the negative impact and maximizes the positive potential inherent in conflict

within the framework of the values of peace. That is, both the solutions which are sought, and the

means by which they are sought, are judged against the criteria of being against violence,

dominance, oppression, and exploitation, and for the satisfaction of human needs for security,

identity, self-determination and quality of life for all people (D. J. Christie, R. V. Wagner, & D.

Winter, 2001).

Sanson and Bretherton define conflict resolution as a process that "provides techniques to

deal with disputes in a manner which is nonviolent, avoids dominance or oppression by one party
over the other, and, rather than exploiting one party, aims to meet the human needs of all".( D. J.

Christie, R. V. Wagner, & D. Winter, 2001,p.170).

Conflict resolution strategies fall into three basic categories:

(1) Power assertion (physical action, criticisms, use of threats)

(2) Negotiation (third-party mediation, compromise, stepping down)

(3) Disengagement (dropping the topic, taking no action, walking away) (Joshi, 2014).

Interpersonal conflict resolution strategies have been found to be a function of factors

such as age, cognitive development, gender, culture, relationship type, contextual setting and

personality. Conflict resolution refers to what transpires in order to bring a disagreement to an

end. "Effective conflict resolution involves, managing the emotions evoked in a conflictual

situation and using a negotiation or problem-solving process to determine a mutually acceptable

solution" (Joshi, 2014).

TRADITIONAL AND EMERGING STRATEGIES FOR INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT

RESOLUTION

The major practices of international conflict management during the Cold War period—

the practices of traditional diplomacy—reflected the state system dominant in world politics for

centuries. It made sense to treat international conflict as occurring between nation states that

acted in a unitary fashion on the basis of stable and discrete national interests rooted in

geopolitics, natural resources, and other enduring features of countries. If the behavior of states

was dictated by such interests, it followed that conflict between states reflected conflicting

interests (Paul C. Stern & Druckman D, 2000).

 In the world of national interests the chief methods of international conflict management

were the:

 traditional diplomatic

 military

 Economic means of influence, up to and including the threat or use of force.

These tools of power politics—the same tools that states used to engage in international

conflict—were the main ones employed in efforts to address conflict. Thus, states or coalitions of

states tried to prevent or mitigate violence by using threats of armed force (deterrence, coercive

diplomacy, defensive alliances such as NATO); economic sanctions and other tangible

nonmilitary threats and punishments, such as the withdrawal of foreign aid; and direct military

force to establish demilitarized zones. States were also sensitive to the delicate balance of

nuclear power that could be jeopardized by this kind of coercive diplomacy. For this reason, in

particular, they sought security regimes that provided norms devised to reduce the risks of

escalation.

Negotiation in the world of national interests meant balancing or trading the competing

interests of states against one another or finding common interests that could be the basis for

agreement even in the face of other conflicting interests. A search for common interests was

characteristic of Cold War-era negotiations aimed at preventing military confrontations between

the United States and the Soviet Union (Paul C. Stern & Druckman D, 2000).

Definition: Negotiation is the most basic means of settling differences. It is back-and-forth

communication between the parties of the conflict with the goal of trying to find a solution.
Negotiation allows you to participate directly in decisions that affect you. In the most successful

negotiations, the needs of both parties are considered. A negotiated agreement can become a

contract and be enforceable.

When and How Negotiation Is Used

  Most people negotiate every day. In some circumstances you may want the help of a lawyer to

help you negotiate a fair deal. Negotiation is the first method of choice for problem-solving and

trying to reach a mutually acceptable agreement. If no agreement is reached, you may pursue any

of the other options suggested here. This process can be appropriately used at any stage of the

conflict - before a lawsuit is filed, while a lawsuit is in progress, at the conclusion of a trial, even

before or after an appeal is filed.

Characteristics of Negotiation:

 Voluntary

 Private and confidential

 Quick and inexpensive

 Informal and unstructured

 Parties control the process, make their own decisions and reach their own agreements (no

third party decision maker)

 Negotiated agreements can be enforceable

 Can result in a win-win solution(Methods for Resolving Conflicts and Disputes, 2015)

For the solution-focused approaches to conflict resolution, careful and strategic thinking and

deliberations about how best to translate a deeper understanding of the emotional and
neurophysiologic underpinnings of conflict resolution processes into practical, hands-on

mediation techniques are imperative. An understanding of the dialectically evolving relationship

between mediation and psychology, would sure lead to better ways of developing competent

mediators at conflict resolution. The old adage " agree to disagree", perhaps first printed under

the name of John Wesley, is one of the cornerstones of conflict resolution, suggesting the

possibility and in turn advice that people can disagree with each other without experiencing

conflict (Joshi, 2014).

Definition

  Mediation is a voluntary process in which an impartial person (the mediator) helps with

communication and promotes reconciliation between the parties which will allow them to reach a

mutually acceptable agreement. Mediation often is the next step if negotiation proves

unsuccessful.

When and How Mediation Is Used:

  When you and the other person are unable to negotiate a resolution to your dispute by

yourselves, you may seek the assistance of a mediator who will help you and the other party

explores ways of resolving your differences. You may choose to go to mediation with or without

a lawyer depending upon the type of problem you have. You may always consult with an

attorney prior to finalizing an agreement to be sure that you have made fully informed decisions

and that all your rights are protected. Sometimes mediators will suggest that you do this.

Mediation can be used in most conflicts ranging from disputes between consumers and

merchants, landlords and tenants, employers and employees, family members in such areas as

divorce, child custody and visitation rights, eldercare and probate as well as simple or complex
business disputes or personal injury matters. Mediation can also be used at any stage of the

conflict such as facilitating settlements of a pending lawsuit.

The traditional diplomatic strategies of influence were refined and elaborated greatly during

the Cold War period. They continue to be relevant in the post-Cold War world, although their

application is sometimes a bit different now (see Chapters 3 through 6). In deploying and

threatening force to address and possibly resolve conflicts, there has been increased emphasis

during the post-Cold War period on multilateral action. States have increasingly looked to

regional international organizations to advance conflict resolution goals, especially where

unilateral state action might create new kinds of conflict and where influential nations within

regions see merit in strengthening their regions’ institutions.

Characteristics of Mediation:

 Promotes communication and cooperation

 Provides a basis for you to resolve disputes on your own

 Voluntary, informal and flexible

 Private and confidential, avoiding public disclosure of personal or business problems

 Can reduce hostility and preserve ongoing relationships

 Allows you to avoid the uncertainty, time, cost and stress of going to trial

 Allows you to make mutually acceptable agreements tailored to meet your needs

 Can result in a win-win solution (Methods for Resolving Conflicts and Disputes, 2015)

Military organizations are now increasingly being used in new ways and for new conflict

resolution purposes. Armed force is infrequently used in direct interventions. Peace-keeping

missions still sometimes physically separate adversaries to prevent further violence, but they also

provide humanitarian relief, resettle refugees, and rebuild infrastructure.

A striking development since the end of the Cold War has been the emergence from relative

obscurity of three previously underutilized strategies for international conflict resolution. These

strategies all deviate from the zero-sum logic of international conflict as a confrontation of

interests. The observation that these strategies are now more widely used is not meant to imply

that they are always used effectively. Also, the strategies are often used together, and sometimes

the distinctions among them may be blurred. One strategy may be called conflict transformation

(Paul C. Stern & Druckman D, 2000).

1. Conflict transformation

One strategy may be called conflict transformation. This is the effort to reach

accommodation between parties in conflict through interactive processes that lead to reconciling

tensions, redefining interests, or finding common ground.

This strategy departs radically from the logic of enduring national interests by making

two related presumptions: that interests and conflicts of interest are to some degree socially

constructed and malleable, and that it is possible for groups to redefine their interests to reduce

intergroup tension and suspicion and to make peaceful settlements more possible.

Certain intergroup conflicts, particularly those associated with the politics of identity, are

seen as having significant perceptual and emotional elements that can be transformed by

carefully organized intergroup processes so as to allow reconciliation and the recognition of new

possibilities for solution.

 The conflict transformation approach is seen in its purest form in a set of techniques

pioneered in the 1960s by academics and NGOs under such names as:

 interactive conflict resolution

 citizen diplomacy

 problem-solving workshops

This approach features facilitated meetings at which members of groups in conflict seek to

understand each other’s positions and world views in order to create an atmosphere more

conducive to the peaceful resolution of disputes. The intent is that over the course of the

meetings the participants will come to reinterpret the relationship between their groups and the

possible futures of that relationship and that this change in the perceptions of a small number of

individuals will lead either directly (through concrete peace proposals) or indirectly (e.g.,

through the rise to power of people who accept new ideas) to a more peaceful future for the

groups (Paul C. Stern & Druckman D, 2000).

2. Structural prevention

A second previously underutilized strategy for conflict resolution is sometimes called structural

prevention to distinguish it from “operational prevention,” which involves dealing with

immediate crises likely to erupt quickly into deadly violence. Structural prevention involves

creating organizations or institutionalized systems of laws and rules that establish and strengthen

nonviolent channels for adjudicating intergroup disputes, accommodating conflicting interests,

and transforming conflicts by finding common ground.

 Structural prevention typically focuses on the problems of cultural divided states,

especially those with weak democratic traditions, deep ethnic divisions, and histories of

collective violence perpetrated by one group against another or by past governments against

civilian populations. Various tools are available for structural prevention, including:

 institutions for transitional justice

 truth telling

 reconciliation

 electoral and constitutional design

 autonomy arrangements within federal governance structures

 laws and policies to accommodate linguistic and religious differences

 training for law enforcement officials in following the rule of law

 institutions assuring civilian control of military organizations

 The development and support of institutions of civil society.

3. Normative change

The 3rd strategy is normative change, defined as developing and institutionalizing formal

principles and informal expectations that are intended to create a new context for the

management of conflict. Norms may also define responsibilities for states to prevent violent

conflict. Although norms were established to manage conflict between states during the Cold
War, a notable feature of the post-Cold War period is the effort to use international norms to

regulate or prevent conflict within states (Paul C. Stern & Druckman D, 2000).
References

Methods for Resolving Conflicts and Disputes, (2015) Retrieved from

https://www.okbar.org/freelegalinfo/disputes/

Paul C. Stern & Druckman D, (2000).Conflict Resolution in a Changing World [PDF file] THE

NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS, 3-8. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/fast/Downloads/1-37.pdf

Shobhna Joshi, (2014).Conflict Resolution: A Psychological Perspective Peaceworks, Vol. 4(1)

[PDF file], 2-5. Retrieved from http://www.development peace.org/Journal/Peaceworks

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