e?E* esBetuatr#s *fl r?

m
FaE &3 aaelu arad *duis?s

il€tlR t" Eg Fi* gEE

?ru?{4{}&EiCTt{hhj communication. This lasted till the ninth year of

The dry deserts of Sy,ria have preserved textiles. They theYen-hsi period during the Emperor Huan-ti's
are no more than scraps representing what must have reign 1766 AD) vtben rhe king afTh-tiin, An-tun
been an extensive East-West trade that is known fMarcus Aurelius Antoninus] sent an embassy
from Classical literature. Roman authors noted with uhofrom thefrontier ofJih-nan lAnrarr'] ffired
horror how the women of Rome spent vast sums ioory, rhinoceros horns and tartoise shell. From
on imported silks and other costly textiles. Perhaps that time dates the dired intercourse vtith this
less well known, Chinese texts also make it clear country." (Hau-han-shu, chapter 88; partly
that textiles were also of interest to the East as well: written during the 5th century al and
"The country ofTh-ts'in fSyria] zs ako called embracing the period 25 to 220 to).
Li-chien [Li-kin, Re-kam, Petraf and, as being The passage above clearly considers textiles
situated on the TDestern ?art of the sea, Hai-hsi-kuo along with precious substances such as gold, silver,
fcountry ofthe western part ofthe sea]. Irs and gems. This clearly reflects the Chinese desire
territory amounts to seoeral thousand li; it for trade, and may explain why some Western
contains ooerfour hundred cities, and ofdependent motifs, if not some of the fabrics themselves, are
states there are several times ten... The czuntry found in textiles recovered from Western China.
contains much gold, silt-,er and rare precious Yet it is clear from the passage that the Parthians (a
s tones,... c orak, am b e6 gl as s,... go ld- e rnbroi dere d dynasty based in Iran and Iraq from 350 BC-250 AD)
rugs and thin silk cloth of oarious colours. They did not encourage direct commerce between Syria
make gold-coloured cloth and asbestos cloth. They and China. They intended to remain in control of
furtber haoe fne cloth,'also called'doron of the the trade at least as far as Syria.
usater sheep'; it is madefrom the cocoons of utild In a similar way Syrians were critical in
silk-usorms... Tbey trffic by sea tuith Parthia and bringing Asian goods further West. There are
India, the proft of uhich trade is ten-fold. They written accounts ofSyrian trading colonies in
are honest in their transactions, and there are no Egypt and Rome. There is even a Palmyrene
double prices... Their kings aktsays desired to send funerary stele in Britain (in the Arbeia Roman Fort
eru.bassies to Cbina, but the Parthians ztsished to Museum), made to commemorate the native born
carry on trade usith them in Chinese silks, and wife of a Syrian merchant. It is perhaps only an
it is for this reason tbat they vsere cut offrom indication of a network that has left few documents.
 ORIENTAL CARPtrT &TEXTILE STUDIES VII

i:ii-. i Funerary stele in

front of tbe Museum of

s .--. 'q -::
Palmlra. This large example
is of typial Palnyreneform.
The richllt dressed reclining

male is accomfanied by his

seated wife and children

There is debate as to ubat this
scene re?resents Is it a happy

occasion or is the banquet a

more sombre one in his

hanour? He is dressed in uhat

is nou knoun ds Eastern stlle

in trousers uith a long tunic,

ul:ih is rotalll' out of keeping

uith the uestern Raman toga

traditian Thefabris used to

make his clothing are aery

detailed. Although tbe No mention is made of what the merchant traded, clothing, linen mattresses, and pillows. Perhaps an
srulpture uould have been though it is likely that textiles formed a part of his interesting question to ask at this stage is hypo-

fainted, uhat remains today business. Sadly, the wet climate of Britain is not thetical. If the textiles were not preserved, what
is rather stark. ideally suited to preserving fabrics. evidence would there be -from the texts
aside - to
At the outset it is important to remember that attest to their importance in antiquity? This
i i:; ... Detail of textilx the textiles found in Palmyra are not a-11 locally made. question is far from academic, as textiles from

fram Figure 1. Roundel.s are a The text makes clear that trade was a major factor many civilizations are only accessible through

fatourite mo tif., andf ora I in Syria's wealth. This observation is supported by depictions in other more durable arts.
farms are a/so aer)) camman what survives of their material culture. Scraps of Texts are of course little help in reconstructing
Many {tlte textiles depited cotton cloths from India, as well as substantial aspects of material culture as they rarely go into
in the sculphres laok alike. fragments of Chinese silks, are also found in Syrian descriptive detail, and ifthey do, the descriptions
Does this suggest there uas tombs. Yet the exact trade route involved is unclear. are usually obscure. As a rule, aspects of everyday
an artistic rcnaention that Perhaps somewhat strangely, there is no evidence life are the least likely to be accurately recorded.
gorerned hou clothing should that the Romans controlled the East-West trade History is largely concerned with battles and royal
be
fortra1,ed, or that tbere from the time the goods left Parthian control. genealogy, and leaves the activities of the majority
uas a limited number of Evidence of Roman supervision and organization in times of peace unrecorded. Yet wealth and
fabrit designs? This stands in sharp contrast to the
are lacking. prosperity is not usually based on dramatic events,
Roman obsession with roads and trade in Europe. but trade. There is perhaps no better example of a
i-';il ) Funerary stele uith Perhaps this was an acknowledgement of city based on trade than Palmyra.
a sheet in the Palmlra indigenous power structures in the Near East. Ifone has to see one archaeological site in
Museunt Fabrir could plal Syria in particular had a number ofstrong dynasts Syria then it should be Palmyra. While it is
many roles in sotiety, and thk with hefty local support. possible to suggest that there are Greek, Roman
sheet ma1, hate seleral as?ects After obtaining a snapshot of what existed in and Iranian influences in the art and architecture
The most oboious is that a Palmyra, one is then looking at some of the cloth of the city, it is probably best simply to appreciate
curtain can shield uhat lies that would have been used in Italy as well as in more Palmyra as a unified culture. If what remains is
belond, uhith here rculd remote parts of the Roman Empire, including areas any gauge, the city reached a very high degree of
represent the afterlife. The asfN away as Britain. The Descriptio Totius Orbis sophistication when considered on a world scale.
E (Description of the Whole World), written by a Yet at the root oI Palmyrene prosperity is x
clath could also be interlreted
,i rather ubiquitous concern. The water that supplies
literal/1t as a uinding sheet Syrian author ofthe 4th century notes that Syrian
for tbe bo$,. Thi kind of linen was traded throughout the known wor1d. the oasis made the site a vital stop for those
depition is notfram the Wat, This may have been no idle boast. Other texts make traversing the desert. Silks coming from China
and na doubt relates ta dee?- it clear that many grades of linen clothing existed, and gold coming from Rome passed through
s e ate lra ilivities.
d E a s tern and in 4th century Rome some of the cheapest this hub, and the inhabitants ofthe city grew
Without textual evidenrc it is clothing were known by the name of "unbleached wealthy taking tolls from the caravans. At the
almost impossible to be rcrtain Antiochenes." same time the city was famous for the date palm,
uhat this scene represented. The Edict on Maximum Pries promulgated in which explains the name taken from Greek
301 ,ql by the Emperor Diocletian a-lso lists several "Palmyra". In Arabic the name is Tadmor,which
types fabric made in Damascus, including wool also suggests "date."
 ICOC X TEXTILE CULTURtrS OF SYRIA

'. :.'

under Roman jurisdiction, and some embodl, Detail of tfu nonu

As is familiar to anl.one rvith cven a prssing Roman conceptions of art, but thev should not ruental arth, Pahn1,7n llt;
interest in ancient historl-, the Romat-rs r'r.rested simp11, be considered as Roman. The "Roman" L^eigt sha?ed nnililnent
control ofthe Nlediterranern from the sLICCessors designation is thereforc an oversimplification, as marks the spot rhare t/te

of Alexander. After hard fighting ther. deposed the from the beginning the Roman Empire rvas a co/artnaded street - uhih i.t

kings rvho succeeded him and replaced them lvith universal one i:iir!; 1 : interru2tt:tl h1 the nrodern

governors from Rome. The underlying culture, There r'vere Roman Emperors from many asphalt road changes diret

Semitic.,vith a veneer of Greek, did not change diflerent lineages, and it is not surprising that tion The rith/y detorutel urch

under their rulc. Syria, lvith an rncient culture and vast wealth, also uos erectei by Septinius

During the course of the Romirn E,mpire's contributed leaders. The relationship benveen Sererus (193 211 trt), one oJ

expansion, many regions rvith their o',vn distinctive Rome and Svria is far deeper than any single tha Slriot Rontan Ernferors
characteristics were assimilated There are thcrefore episode or event, as it spans the generations. The I'he de toration shout rome

extensive Rorr.ran period remains from manv areas modern perception of the vlst gr-rlf benveen East tinti/aritie-t uith the stu/ptcd

outside of thc Italian herrtland. These r'vere made and West did not exist in ar.rtiquitv'. Syrir played a decordtion brics, hut

difiirs.lrom thefabrit
themst/tes

- l|/oruen in Pu/ruyt'a

coulrl be ueattr:, ds is clear

t'l

Jiom the rcli(i dndJront

.- texti/e .f.rds in tontbs. Thi.t

girl (on a rtele in thc Palmlra

Musetrm), holding a sVind/e

! tnd uool, perhap-r denLon-

ttt'ntes her iafrt?etence O/der

uoruen uere o;fte tt sintilar/y

porn'dyed u-ith the tools oJ'

/heir trade Cledr\ this craJi

uas central lo thair status. It
i:l
is unlike/1 thal elite'aomen

dttua/\ u-a-.e, rather the

sf in d I a t efre.t e n le d m.ds te ry
ot,er the bou sebo ld.,4ris ta-

crdtit Romon /ddies uere olso

but ied uitb goltlen t?;ndlcs

ORIENTAL CARPET &TEXTILE STUDIES VII
i !{) 4 Chinre textilefag-
ment in the Palmya Museum
Cbinese textiles uere shipped
thaugh Palm1ru and on to
Rome, but there is no etidenrc
Chinesefabris in Palmy
{
rene art, suggesting that artists
uere un c omfar tab le repre s ent-
ing nan-natite designs
)t i:i:'i Rahed detoration on
a textile in Palml,ra Museum.
This textile is suggestite oftbe
those represented on the reliefs,
although some hate eten mare
elaborile designs Blue and
purple uere re.rerudfor the
elite in tlte ancient Mediter-
ranean. Rome had laws tbat
restrided royal purVle to the
aristordcy. Rol,al blue uas
obtainedfom murex, a mar-
ine mollusc. Similar sbades
arefound on Chinese textiles
made to suit Wstern tastes
12
significant role in the history of Rome in particular
and the West in general. Rome also faced some
stark challenges for world supremacy from the
East. Perhaps the best example is Qreen Zenobia.
Her reign is best known for war, but the basis of
her wealth, enough to challenge Rome, was trade.
Textiles played a leading ro1e.
Zenobia's husband, Odenanthus, pursued a directly to legal rights, the desire for showy clothes
policy of friendship with Rome. A Roman garrison
was installed in Palmyra since about 150, but it was
more of a warning to the Parthians not to seize the
city for themselves. After a series of wars with the
Parthians, Palmyra was raised to the status of a
colony in 272 rnder Emperor Caracalla. Because the
Emperor's mother was a daughter of the high
priest of Emesa (modern Homs) this could be seen
as again protecting Palmyra from Parthian designs.
Records from256/7 oudine the rise of Septimius
Odainat from his appointment as Consul and
Governor of Syia Phoenice.With the breakdown
of Roman control in the face of the new threat
from Iran under the Sasanian dynasty (250-650 al),
all the Roman troops in the region were put under
his command. The Sasanians were far more effective
than the Parthians against Rome, which made
Rome particularly sensitive on its eastern frontier.
With the capture and execution of the Roman
Emperor Valerian by Sasanian forces (253-260),
Odainat began his strike into lraq, reaching as far
as the Sasanian capital in Ctesiphon h266.He
was the hero of the day, but did not live long to
savour victory, as he was murdered, perhaps by his
wife, in 267/S.Zetobia ruled through her son. She
expanded Palmyrene control into Anatolia and
Egypt, and she had coins struck with her son
assuming the title of 'Augustus". Considering that
several Roman Emperors did have Syrian origins,
this was indeed an assumption - as the title was
not given by the Roman Senate - but it was not
completely unjustified.
The Roman response to the rearrangement
of the balance of power was swift, and Aurelian
marched through Anatolia and took Emesa (Homs)
tn 272. Zenobia was soon caught trying to escape
to the Sasanians, and she surrendered the city to
the Romans. Palmyra pledged adherence to Rome,
but shortly after the majority of troops left in the
spring of 273, the Roman garrison was massacred
and the city again made a bid for independence.
This time the Emperor allowed the city to be
completely destroyed. The inhabitants were
slaughtered, and after this date Palmyra was little
more than a military camp. The main trade route
with the West then changed - almost certainly due
to deliberate Roman policy - and Palmyra never
recovered.The relatively neglected ruin in the
middle of the desert was preserved for archaeology.
As the texts and sculptures suggest, textiles did
play a very important role in the society. They were
perhaps the most obvious marker of social class.
While women would often be portrayed with
elaborate jewellery, men would have 1itt1e but their
clothing to mark their status. As status related
may almost be considered a secondary concern.
Perhaps most interestingly, the cloths represented
on the effigies and those recovered from the tombs
differed substantially. There are many clear imports
from China FIG o.
Clearly a major imperus for importing fabrics
was colour. Linen, known to be a gpically Syrian
fabric, does not take dye well. No elaborate
brocades - as on some ofthe effigies - have been
recovered. There are a few textiles that have a
surface design FrG z. There is still debate about the
origin of the dyed woo1, but it is likely that purple
wool was from the Mediterranean coast. Finally,
there are striped fabrics that suggest how some of
the grave stele could have been painted FIG 8.
With the demise of Zenobia and Rome's
retribution, including the change in the East-West
 ICOC X TEXTILE CULTURES OF SYRIA

trade route, the high culture of Palmvra efTectively

ended. This leaves a large gap in the archaeological
record, but does not suggest that no weaving ofan1,
kind was taking place in the area.
There continued to be nomads who tended
animals that could exploit the harsh terrain. Nomads
laid the foundations for Palmyra, yet according to
what one sees of the material culture of the city,
they were invisible during its heyday. Qrite clearlv
Palmyrene society valued sedentary hxuries such as
sculpture, yet the nomads were part of the culture.
Someone had to transport goods by camel. Not
surprisingly, there are reliefs of camels laden with
trade goods FIG e. One could argue that the
language at this time would not likely be Arabic,
but no one can be sure what language the traders
rvould have spoken. Even ifthey did not speak
-\rabic they were, on the basis of their material
culture, close to the modern Beduin.

11-:a'. r

llention the word Beduinin the Near East, perhaps

Sr.ria in particular, and there will likelv be a variety
of responses. Some - perhaps with romantic
notions - value their reputation as free ranging
nomads. Others look down on their "primitive"
litesqvle. Just about everyone is familiar with what
:hev weave, but their woven goods are not usually
.old in the West. They have not been
.r-stematically collected until recentlv.
The word is derived from the Arabic word
:'-t't:'adin, meaning nomads, and is associated with where they can still be found. The Ethnographic : it.. .: Texti/efrngment

:re camel nomads of the desert. It has nothing to Museum in Palmyra is one of few museums that uith caloured bands in the

jr rvith their tribe (qabila). Although some citv preserve the material culture of these people. Most Palmlra Museum This

::ople may use the term to refer to villagers, the of the materials date within the last fifty years. textik is
lrobably made

.:ter normally use it only for nomads who raise During this time many Beduin men have moved to lotalj It also hints that'uhile

:.n-iels. These camel riders have status because they the cities for work. They can leave their families manlt of the scu/ptures are

. rmed the backbone of the military, though this is behind for as much as half a year at a time. While no.u uhite, thel may bau lost

,.. of a concern in modern times. the children often tend animals, Beduin women muth detail fom pain ting

Tending sheep and goats does not make one continue to weave to supplement their income. uhicb has nou perisbed.

. Beduin. Many Beduin tribes have sedentary Though today much weaving that is sold as
::rnches, and tribal loyalties may be complex and Beduin is in fact woven in villages and is designed i' j i., 'i ,4 ctmel laden uith
,:rrusing. The leaders may be settled in an oasis to appeal to tourists, weaving in traditional patterns trade goodsfrom a stele in the

,:.i or.vn agricultural properry. The elite may own stil1 takes place. Beduin weavings can be character- Palmyra Museum While it i:
- :ep and goats, which need a regular source of izedby their bright bold colours. Sadly now the untlear uhat is in many of
..:er in order to survive. For those not related to majority are woven with synthetic dyes, and are the bundles, almost certainll

.:-c Beduin, there was usually a exchange of money usua111, avoided by collectors. fabrics uere part of d routine
: :he promise of securiqr The nomads in turn Designs are often simple and geometric, which /odd. Thel uere taluable,

, uld buy needed foods such as dates and grain, is in keeping with their looms, which often consist relatiuly light, and not

- J people in the town could hire the nomads to of two easy to transport beams of wood or metal subject to breakage It is sucb

.<e care of their animals. Similar arrangements that can be staked into the ground. The warp is scenes ofeoerydalt life thot are

.-..rht be reflected in distant antiquity in Palmyra. continuously wrapped around the beams, and a rare in reliefs

Br. the end of the 20th centurv most of the stick holding the string heddles completes the
I loom. While the length of the loom can vary
=::in had settled, though there remain numbers
. .:em clinging to tradition in areas marginal for considerably, up to the size of tent panels, many
'-: :rq. Palmyra is one of the few places in Svria pieces are narrow-. Many wider Beduin weaves have

r3
I
r
ORIENTAL CARPtrT &TEXTILE STUDIES \TII
ffi

ilr

.-a a::-iia,tiila

: a ).:,i---t,i:all

: : - ,.)::.:.i. Slni!ltr rene-r

; . -:- : ,,:,::iltctetl in
:-,,;.i15 t a,l t1, / hroughout
;i.,
-\ut East and Centro/
,l:ta Ritual: connccted uith
bit th, marriage, and death are

perhaps the mott relistant ta

thdnge oter time

| ,: .. Beduin camel trap_

?i m the Ethnographi.c

Musetrru, Po/m1ra These

nomadit peo2lc preserae same

aspects of materidl culture

tbat cdn be seen in Palntlrene
art. Perbafs the most abtious
are tbeir texti/es, uhich nn be

dfpreciated only as shades of

grel in sculptures. Tbi-r carnel,

out€ttedfor a morriage cere-

mon1t, may not be aut af?lace
in oncient Palmlra

' l' , : The Bedttin britle

uould he rctere m -tieu

uith an elaborate Jotb. Here

c lo tb
Jimc tio ns ta' r i tu a I 11,

* objectiont senerat
':,'::

been stitched together from more than one piece.
As a result of this primitive technology, many of
the textiles are uneven, and some can even be
considered loose when compared to city weaves.
But how o1d is Beduin weaving?
Like most textiles made for use, there are lew
o1d pieces. There are no textiles like Beduin fabrics
that survive from the tombs. This may not be a
surprise, as Palmvra had an elite that was comparable
I
1r+
+
t2
with any in the Western world. Evervday textiles
would not have appealed to them. Yet there are a
few scenes where continuity is suggested. perhaps
the most interesting invoh,es a procession behind
what is believed to be a covered deitv f;tit !il. As in
many other ancient religions, the effigy of the deity
was porverful, and could onlv be revealed in parti-
cular places. The r,vomen who follow the deity are
all veiled, a practice that is ofgreater antiquity rhan

t
 ICOC X TEXTILE CULTURES OF SYRIA

!t'l {. !.! Mosaifrom the

Museum ofAl-Noman,

perhaps 5th centur! AD.

While scenes re2resenting lhe

elite are common, aspetts af

everyday l'iJi are usudl\ not
depited. This harse uitb a

tra??;ng, unlike the vast

majority of scenesfrom
Pa/myra, shous the material

culture {the comman peaple.

The patterned design an the

trapping- lilzely a saddle

blanbct 'nould nal be aut of

place in a modern Beduin

tam?

:'{l : i4 Typia/ example of

Beduin ueating in the
Ethnographic Museum,

Palmyra. This bag uould be

toa rcmplicated to re?resent

Is1am. Camels are also used to carry sacred objects in a small mosaic, and the

in Beduin society, and they can be elaborately pattern - particular/1 if

decorated for weddings FIGS 11-12. Any similarities simplifed - is :imilar to the

between the two scenes can be ascribed to necessity.

Ifa camel were used as a conveyance and lor
important occasions it is no surprise that it is

decorated. Yet it is undeniable that some

ceremonies - birth, death, and marriage - can
retain rituals that remain unchanged for a long
period of time.
Perhaps a more convincing example is presented
by a mosaic of a horse trapping FIG r:. This is the
only example of such a textile that I have lound in
the ancient arts of Syria. In style the mosaic can be
considered "provincia1", and it clearly reflects a
regional style that was not considered high art. The
animal is far from naturalistic, and the drawing is
somewhat crude, yet everyday life is rarely depicted
in art ofa higher level. It is also later in date than
the high point of Palmyrene art, and may indeed
represent the material culture of Arab speakers.
The textile itself has a pattern very similar to
Beduin textiles of a more recent date Hc l+. It is
notable that the trapping is for a horse and not a

came1, which may be considered more typically

Beduin. Although the textile, which may be a produced over a long time. On the other hand, to
blanket or a bag, does not have tassels that are also those who would challenge cultural continuity, the
so typical of the Beduin, it seems that the animal is Beduin are known for their resistance to change.
decorated with bands that are ornamented by tassels Perhaps desert dwellers, living in an environment
or tabards. Perhaps, as in the example above, the where survival can be a challenge, are conservative
span of time and culture between the ancient mosaic for good reasons. Innovation is perhaps more
and present day textiles is too vast. extolled in more secure societies.
Given the same basic materials it may be logical The mosaic above is an important piece of the
to assume that the same kinds of goods would be przzle. Everyday textiles are not usually depicted in

r5
ORIENTAL CARPET &TEXT]LE STUDIES VlI
acclaim they took the city of Damascus from the
:' ;i) ; ; Detail ofMamlu/t
last descendent of Saladin and began oPerations
car?et in the Textile Museunt,
against the Crusaders. Under Sultans Baibars
Washington, DC The design
(1260-1277) and Q31un (1280-1.290) European
is not out of keePing'aith
forces were fina1ly driven out of Syria'
Mamluk blazans seen on
While known for their fearsome Powers in
architecture.
war, the X4amluks were lavish patrons of the arts'
They endowed many religious institutions, and
.)' ! l. I :: Mamluk blazons
their buildings suruive in great numbers throughout
are rarell exeuLted in colour
their former territories. Much of their art is known
in stone, as the cost mdkes
for its sheer oPulence' After driving out the Crusaders
this prohibitite The result is
they effectively controlled the lucrative East-West
tbat architedure, a Mamluk
trade benveen Asia and the increasinglv rvealthy
:pecialt1, na1 natfulll' refect
cities of Europe. Much wealth, howeveS stayed with
the colourful range of'contem
the "middlemen", controlled by the Mamluks' Their
?ora\t material culture The
rugs, like their architecture, reflect their wealth'
Muslint anthor,4hmad dl-
Mamluk rugs are very distinctive, and are
Qalqashandi notes in his
considered by some to be the greatest carpets in the
Subh al-Asha (,4daie to
world FIC 1s. With their striking colours of ful1y
Citi/ Su'ranx) of1412 that
saturated reds, blues, and greens, as well as their
it'a as rus t o marlt for eo erlt
15 bold geometric and floral forms, thev are among
tmir to hate a slmbol atcord-

ing to hi.t 1reference afPlied
in rulout' abote the doors
hk buildings, as
Palmyrene art. After Palmyra fe1l, there are few the most easily recognized carpets' Although they
scraps offabric that attest to a weaving tradition, have been cited as arising essentially de not'o,with
{
although it is clear that weaving continued' The no clear-cut architectural Parallels, this has not
oell a.r on

trail can be taken uP again with the Mamluk stopped art historians from raising a number of
cloths used on his !ersona/

dynasty. Although thevwere not native to Syria,

theories to explain what culture or cultures could
objects and animals. The most

they occupied that country and made Damascus have spawned this artistic form. C'G' Ellis even
nmmanform this slmbol could
their second capital. They also made rugs, but the suggests that the design mav have originated from
take is in d rottrulel' uhicb

major question is where they'uvere made' the Buddist mandala. If any consensus has been
requires little imagination to
reached as to their origin it has been somewhere in
a??re c;a te as a : imP lirtie d
ri.ii.'.r : I i- :.': ;jl.':_,
i':' -. Central Asia (though at first slaves were taken
shield. In other uses blazons 11.

By the end ofthe 13th century a new force rose to from the Caucasus). This is in keeping with what is
are :imPi Placed in geametrit
challenge the descendants of Saladin, the Mamluks' known of the Mamluks, although clearlv they
llgures - that are not canatnc
Their political organization was perhaps unique in formed no unified ethnic group. The records show
ing shield:hdPes - or simPll

dit'eft|1, ott the object
world history. Originally taken as slaves from the
it:elf
Caucasus Mountains and Central Asia, they were
officia1ly slaves of the Caliph. They were effective
clearly that even in later periods Balkan peoples as
well as Greeks could also be Mamluks' They were,
however, staunchly Muslim and verv much steeped

rulers in both Egypt and Syria, and stoPPed the in Near Eastern tradition'
Mongols before they reached Damascus in the Clearly because of its position as a trading hub

Battle of Ain Ja1ud. At the same time by popular in the Eastern Mediterranean Cairo was their
major centre of power. Lavish structures and other
arts such as glass and metalwork are clearly from
Egypt, and clearly have Mamluk designs, but
follow forms familiar to the Near trast' This had
lead many to assume that the Mamluk rugs were
woven in Egypt. An exhibition at Textile Museum,
Washington, rvas entitled "Mamluk Rugs from
trgypt" (March 28-September 7,2003)'Whi1e it is
conceivable that some of these rugs were woven ln
Egypt, the vast majority of Mamluk rugs came
from European collections with no provenance'
Despite the fact that Syria was under threat
from the Crusaders during some of the time the
Mamluks were in Power, there are a number of
\ reasons to susPect that at least some "Nlamluk'
rugs were woven in Syria rather than Egypt' There
16

16
 ICOC X TtrXTILE CULTURES OF SYR]A
: : ',, I Reton.rtructe d

rcili m the Great

Morque, Damascus. This

re?resents the earliest f hase

of Ottoman arthitecture in

Sltria md it closell,follous
Marqluk designt Ncithct rh.
colour nor design is out oJ'

ke eping uith Mamluk rugs.

This illustrution ma1 also

serae a! a uarning to consider

the term "Mamluk" in a broad

sense uhen rcnsidering

material culture, -ahich ma1
change more s/o't/1t thart

2olitital control.

are scattered references in the literature. Cardinal region. Eglpt soon became a backwater, and Syria
Wolsey placed an order for one hundred so ca11ed was in a similar situation. While some ornate
"Damascene carpets" from the Signorf in Venice. Ottoman structures were built in Egypt and Syria
In 1520 slrty carpets were delivered to him. Perhaps Fic 17, quite clearlv the1, were not on the same scale
not coincidentally, Mamluk rugs also begin to appear as earlier Mamluk structures. There was probably
in English paintings at about this time. It could be less concern with changing tastes in art, but rather
argued that the geographical term has little bearing the emergence ofa new court style that changes
on the origin of the rugs involved. It is likely that tastes over time. The Ottoman style reflected
Damascus was a major point of contact bet\,veen Ottoman political control.
Eastern goods and Western traders. The name may While there has been much effort to determine
be no more than a dealers term. Yet one should not the ethnic basis for Mamluk art, perhaps carpets in
be too eager to dismiss it as having no meaning. particulaS it should probably be seen less in ethnic
Some of the rugs that are suspected as being terms and more in terms of an elite court art. One
made outside of trg1,pt are grouped in the rather has only to look earlier in Svrian history to find a

catch-a1l term "para-Mamluks". With Z-spun wool
they are usuall1, assumed not to originate in North
Africa. Within this group there is little unity of
design and even less in terms oftechnical features
such as wool and weave. Yet many of these rugs
have designs that, at least in part, reflect traditional
Mamluk designs. Clearly thev are in an Eastern
Mediterranean sty1e, and there is even evidence
that rugs were woven in Rhodes. Unpublished
excerpts from Venetian archives contain references
to rugs in 1.498 zr,d from 1528-1532. Some suggest
that central cross designs on some of the compart-
ment rugs could be seen as variants ofcrosses that
would be consistent with the history of the island.
Crusading knights occupied Rhodes until their
expulsion in7523.
Perhaps one reason why Mamluk rugs are so
valued is because they ceased to be made shortly
after the Mamluks lost power. With their defeat by
the Ottomans tn 1577 , Mediterranean trade patterns
changed and Anatolia became the most powerful
para11e1. The city of Palmyra developed a unique
artistic tradition that clearly took elements fi'om
other cultures, yet remains easily identified. There
is essentially no evolution of the style from primitive
forms, and it appears to be well developed by the
time it was first encountered. The actions of one
person, Zer,obia, changed the course of Palmyra so
that it came into conflict with Rome. Alter the city
was destroyed the elite who demanded high status
textiles were displaced ifnot destroyed. Few echoes
of their material culture remained.
The Mamluks are in a similar position to the
Palmyrenes. Much emphasis has been placed on
comparing Mamuk carpets with other arts. The
para11e1s are far lrom exact, just as in the case of the
It may in fact be very difficult
textiles of Palmyra.
to compare dilTerent art forms. While artists in
different media may share some conventions, many
arts have their own distinctive traditions.
In the end, what can be said of Mamlukweaving
in Syria? It i.s an open question. It seems likely that

ry
OR]ENTAL CARPET &TEXTILE STUDIES VII

?:!{; lE Disptal af Beduin

ueating in the Ethnagraphic

Museum, Palmya. Arabs

hau a long tradition af

uearing, but it is not uell
attested. Their textiles hate

not been slstematicalll

collected or darumented until

retentllt. Wit h feu e xce? t;ons'

due to economic factars,

textilesfor the elite are nou

brougbt from other regions

(suth as Turkey or lran) The

lack of large stale production

ofelite textiles today shauld

not infuence onei a22raisnl of
the past.

the Mamuks wove rugs in Syria, yet no fragments are no clear examples of Chinese infuence in their
have been recovered there. Perhaps the future will art. The archaeological textiles demonstrate that

offer greater certainty. Dye analysis may yetyield there was a quantity of Chinese material in Palmyra,

the missing link. Other scientific studies are but it may have made litt1e impact on native arts.
eagerly awaited as yre1l, and the possibility of The last question to address is perhaps the most
finding Mamluk fragments cannot be ruled out. contentious. While the elite textiles disappeared
with no descendants, some Beduin textiles may
5{,r,1}&€;1R1' reflect a distant Palmyrene heritage. With the
To return to the question ofwhat can be recons- passage of so much time, and so many political
tructed of Syria's ancient textiles if the textiles did changes, it is significant to note that some aspects
not survive, the prognosis seems mixed. Sculptures of the marriage ceremony seem to be reflected in
do show that textiles were important to the culture, Palmyrene art. Beduins as well as various Tirrkish
but there is a large gap between what is recovered groups shield the bride from onlookers using fabrics.
and what is depicted. Perhaps the most obvious Their animals are also elaborately decorated. One
difference is colour. Many sculptures may be stark could argue that the basis of the ceremony is
today, but they were clearly painted in the past. It universal, and that any similarities are coincidence.
is doubtful if painting - particularly for smal1 scale Yet some aspects of human society are very resistant
sculptures - would have conveyed the range of to change, and when religion is reflected in material
finely detailed patterns that existed. culture it may be very resistant to innovation.
A question also arises when considering the Regarding the Mamluk rugs, it is important to
most elaborate brocade. It appears that none ofthe consider, as in Palmyra, that simply because a textile

highly figural textiles have been recovered. Perhaps is found in a certain place does not mean it origin-
it was not interred in burials, or perhaPs it simply ated there. There is also a clear warning in looking
did not survive. It is also possible that the brocade at other arts to determine the nature ofwhat has
as represented by the sculphrres was more a figment perished. This technique is far from exact. Sadly, it
of the imagination than a fabric that really existed. is unlikely that any study of modern Beduin
The sculptors who executed the grave reliefs were weaving will clarif' the issue FIG 18, as Mamluk
no doubt commissioned to do purely architectural textles represent a court culture that has vanished.
pieces as well. Floral forms on architecture do not
echo nature, but follow their or.m conventions. .e.c Fi rq *lx,'LE l} {; E-i E trH'E
C E

Perhaps the fabrics represented on the effigies also Thanks to the Fulbright Committeefor making research

follow conventions that were instilled in artists in Syria possible during 2002-2003. The Syian
during training. It appears there was, for whatever Department ofTourism uas helpful in prooiding tra'uel
reason, a reluctance by the sculptors to represent in the country, and the Unir.,ersity of Daruascus seroed
Chinese designs. None of the sculptures I have as a base. Too many people to mention ffired kindness

examined show definite Chinese textiles, and there to ruake research and trartel that much easier.
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